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Large-Scale Multi-Label Text Classification on EU Legislation

arXiv 1906.02192 ↗First posted 5 Jun 2019cs.CLcited by 104

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Abstract (arXiv)

We consider Large-Scale Multi-Label Text Classification (LMTC) in the legal domain. We release a new dataset of 57k legislative documents from EURLEX, annotated with ~4.3k EUROVOC labels, which is suitable for LMTC, few- and zero-shot learning. Experimenting with several neural classifiers, we show that BIGRUs with label-wise attention perform better than other current state of the art methods. Domain-specific WORD2VEC and context-sensitive ELMO embeddings further improve performance. We also find that considering only particular zones of the documents is sufficient. This allows us to bypass BERT's maximum text length limit and fine-tune BERT, obtaining the best results in all but zero-shot learning cases.

Key facts. Cited by 104 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 5 Jun 2019.

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Citing papers per year: 2021: 23; 2022: 13; 2023: 18; 2024: 17; 2025: 16; 2026: 17.

104 papers.

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  1. 2021LexGLUE: A Benchmark Dataset for Legal Language Understanding in Englishcited by 302
  2. 2021CUAD: An Expert-Annotated NLP Dataset for Legal Contract Reviewcited by 232
  3. 2021Adapting Language Models for Zero-shot Learning by Meta-tuning on Dataset and Prompt Collectionscited by 128
  4. 2022Pile of Law: Learning Responsible Data Filtering from the Law and a 256GB Open-Source Legal Datasetcited by 113
  5. 2021MultiEURLEX -- A multi-lingual and multi-label legal document classification dataset for zero-shot cross-lingual transfercited by 89
  6. 2021A Statutory Article Retrieval Dataset in Frenchcited by 40
  7. 2022Pre-trained Language Models for the Legal Domain: A Case Study on Indian Lawcited by 39
  8. 2022EUR-Lex-Sum: A Multi- and Cross-lingual Dataset for Long-form Summarization in the Legal Domaincited by 39
  9. 2024Language Models for Text Classification: Is In-Context Learning Enough?cited by 39
  10. 2022Efficient Classification of Long Documents Using Transformerscited by 30
  11. 2023An Exploration of Encoder-Decoder Approaches to Multi-Label Classification for Legal and Biomedical Textcited by 23
  12. 2021Factoring Statutory Reasoning as Language Understanding Challengescited by 20
38 more
  1. 2022Processing Long Legal Documents with Pre-trained Transformers: Modding LegalBERT and Longformercited by 20
  2. 2025Common Corpus: The Largest Collection of Ethical Data for LLM Pre-Trainingcited by 19
  3. 2021Multi-granular Legal Topic Classification on Greek Legislationcited by 15
  4. 2021Extreme Zero-Shot Learning for Extreme Text Classificationcited by 15
  5. 2023Large Language Models as Batteries-Included Zero-Shot ESCO Skills Matcherscited by 14
  6. 2021Regulatory Compliance through Doc2Doc Information Retrieval: A case study in EU/UK legislation where text similarity has limitationscited by 13
  7. 2021Dependency Learning for Legal Judgment Prediction with a Unified Text-to-Text Transformercited by 13
  8. 2022Open Vocabulary Extreme Classification Using Generative Modelscited by 13
  9. 2025Krikri: Advancing Open Large Language Models for Greekcited by 13
  10. 2021A Survey on Deep Learning Event Extraction: Approaches and Applicationscited by 12
  11. 2022Few-shot learning for medical text: A systematic reviewcited by 12
  12. 2023Recurrent Attention Networks for Long-text Modelingcited by 12
  13. 2022Metadata-Induced Contrastive Learning for Zero-Shot Multi-Label Text Classificationcited by 10
  14. 2024LawInstruct: A Resource for Studying Language Model Adaptation to the Legal Domaincited by 10
  15. 2021Improving Pretrained Models for Zero-shot Multi-label Text Classification through Reinforced Label Hierarchy Reasoningcited by 9
  16. 2021CoPHE: A Count-Preserving Hierarchical Evaluation Metric in Large-Scale Multi-Label Text Classificationcited by 9
  17. 2025The Lucie-7B LLM and the Lucie Training Dataset: Open resources for multilingual language generationcited by 9
  18. 2025SATA-BENCH: Select All That Apply Benchmark for Multiple Choice Questionscited by 9
  19. 2021InceptionXML: A Lightweight Framework with Synchronized Negative Sampling for Short Text Extreme Classificationcited by 8
  20. 2024Risks, Causes, and Mitigations of Widespread Deployments of Large Language Models (LLMs): A Surveycited by 8
  21. 2021EncT5: A Framework for Fine-tuning T5 as Non-autoregressive Modelscited by 7
  22. 2022Reliable Decision from Multiple Subtasks through Threshold Optimization: Content Moderation in the Wildcited by 7
  23. 2022A Survey on Extreme Multi-label Learningcited by 7
  24. 2024LexSumm and LexT5: Benchmarking and Modeling Legal Summarization Tasks in Englishcited by 7
  25. 2021PyEuroVoc: A Tool for Multilingual Legal Document Classification with EuroVoc Descriptorscited by 6
  26. 2021Legal Transformer Models May Not Always Helpcited by 6
  27. 2021Hierarchical Text Classification As Sub-Hierarchy Sequence Generationcited by 6
  28. 2023SemSup-XC: Semantic Supervision for Zero and Few-shot Extreme Classificationcited by 6
  29. 2023Breaking the Token Barrier: Chunking and Convolution for Efficient Long Text Classification with BERTcited by 6
  30. 2023ICXML: An In-Context Learning Framework for Zero-Shot Extreme Multi-Label Classificationcited by 5
  31. 2024From Lazy to Prolific: Tackling Missing Labels in Open Vocabulary Extreme Classification by Positive-Unlabeled Sequence Learningcited by 5
  32. 2021The Law of Large Documents: Understanding the Structure of Legal Contracts Using Visual Cuescited by 4
  33. 2021LegaLMFiT: Efficient Short Legal Text Classification with LSTM Language Model Pre-Trainingcited by 4
  34. 2022Scalable Set Encoding with Universal Mini-Batch Consistency and Unbiased Full Set Gradient Approximationcited by 4
  35. 2023A Case Study for Compliance as Code with Graphs and Language Models: Public release of the Regulatory Knowledge Graphcited by 4
  36. 2023Weakly Supervised Multi-Label Classification of Full-Text Scientific Paperscited by 4
  37. 2025SynBench: A Benchmark for Differentially Private Text Generationcited by 4
  38. 2023MatchXML: An Efficient Text-label Matching Framework for Extreme Multi-label Text Classificationcited by 3

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