mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Unpacking the Interdependent Systems of Discrimination: Ableist Bias in NLP Systems through an Intersectional Lens

arXiv 2110.00521 ↗First posted 1 Oct 2021cs.CL cs.AIcited by 30

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Abstract (arXiv)

Much of the world's population experiences some form of disability during their lifetime. Caution must be exercised while designing natural language processing (NLP) systems to prevent systems from inadvertently perpetuating ableist bias against people with disabilities, i.e., prejudice that favors those with typical abilities. We report on various analyses based on word predictions of a large-scale BERT language model. Statistically significant results demonstrate that people with disabilities can be disadvantaged. Findings also explore overlapping forms of discrimination related to interconnected gender and race identities.

Key facts. Cited by 30 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 21 of its 55 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 1 Oct 2021.

Builds on

21 of 55 references.

References · 21

  1. 2018BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understandingcited by 40,204
  2. 2016Man is to Computer Programmer as Woman is to Homemaker? Debiasing Word Embeddingscited by 1,304
  3. 2020Language (Technology) is Power: A Critical Survey of "Bias" in NLPcited by 951
  4. 2016Semantics derived automatically from language corpora contain human-like biasescited by 894
  5. 2019On Measuring Social Biases in Sentence Encoderscited by 397
  6. 2019Nuanced Metrics for Measuring Unintended Bias with Real Data for Text Classificationcited by 396
  7. 2019Mitigating Gender Bias in Natural Language Processing: Literature Reviewcited by 287
  8. 2019Measuring Bias in Contextualized Word Representationscited by 275
  9. 2019Lipstick on a Pig: Debiasing Methods Cover up Systematic Gender Biases in Word Embeddings But do not Remove Themcited by 268
  10. 2017Word Embeddings Quantify 100 Years of Gender and Ethnic Stereotypescited by 251
  11. 2018Examining Gender and Race Bias in Two Hundred Sentiment Analysis Systemscited by 234
  12. 2018Gender Bias in Neural Natural Language Processingcited by 210
9 more
  1. 2020Social Biases in NLP Models as Barriers for Persons with Disabilitiescited by 182
  2. 2018Learning Gender-Neutral Word Embeddingscited by 169
  3. 2020Detecting Emergent Intersectional Biases: Contextualized Word Embeddings Contain a Distribution of Human-like Biasescited by 167
  4. 2018Reducing Gender Bias in Abusive Language Detectioncited by 152
  5. 2019Black is to Criminal as Caucasian is to Police: Detecting and Removing Multiclass Bias in Word Embeddingscited by 146
  6. 2017Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) and Topic modeling: models, applications, a surveycited by 90
  7. 2020Intersectional Bias in Hate Speech and Abusive Language Datasetscited by 22
  8. 2018AI Fairness for People with Disabilities: Point of Viewcited by 16
  9. 2020Unequal Representations: Analyzing Intersectional Biases in Word Embeddings Using Representational Similarity Analysiscited by 12

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2022: 3; 2023: 9; 2024: 6; 2025: 6; 2026: 6.

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  1. 2023Language Model Behavior: A Comprehensive Surveycited by 92
  2. 2023A Survey on Intersectional Fairness in Machine Learning: Notions, Mitigation, and Challengescited by 41
  3. 2023Sociodemographic Bias in Language Models: A Survey and Forward Pathcited by 27
  4. 2024Identifying and Improving Disability Bias in GPT-Based Resume Screeningcited by 27
  5. 2023NBIAS: A Natural Language Processing Framework for Bias Identification in Textcited by 23
  6. 2023Global Voices, Local Biases: Socio-Cultural Prejudices across Languagescited by 23
  7. 2023Weakly Supervised Detection of Hallucinations in LLM Activationscited by 20
  8. 2023Fairness in Language Models Beyond English: Gaps and Challengescited by 16
  9. 2023Queer People are People First: Deconstructing Sexual Identity Stereotypes in Large Language Modelscited by 13
  10. 2024MIST: Mitigating Intersectional Bias with Disentangled Cross-Attention Editing in Text-to-Image Diffusion Modelscited by 10
  11. 2024Fairness Definitions in Language Models Explainedcited by 10
  12. 2023This Prompt is Measuring <MASK>: Evaluating Bias Evaluation in Language Modelscited by 9
18 more
  1. 2024"Cold, Calculated, and Condescending": How AI Identifies and Explains Ableism Compared to Disabled Peoplecited by 9
  2. 2022Data Representativeness in Accessibility Datasets: A Meta-Analysiscited by 6
  3. 2025Who's Asking? Investigating Bias Through the Lens of Disability Framed Queries in LLMscited by 6
  4. 2025ABLEIST: Intersectional Disability Bias in LLM-Generated Hiring Scenarioscited by 4
  5. 2022A Disability Lens towards Biases in GPT-3 Generated Open-Ended Languagescited by 3
  6. 2024Fairness Certification for Natural Language Processing and Large Language Modelscited by 1
  7. 2024A Note on Bias to Completecited by 1
  8. 2025Theories of "Sexuality" in Natural Language Processing Bias Researchcited by 1
  9. 2025Cross-Lingual Stability and Bias in Instruction-Tuned Language Models for Humanitarian NLPcited by 1
  10. 2026QueerGen: How LLMs Reflect Societal Norms on Gender and Sexuality in Sentence Completion Taskscited by 1
  11. 2022Using BERT Embeddings to Model Word Importance in Conversational Transcripts for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Userscited by 0
  12. 2025Who Gets Left Behind? Auditing Disability Inclusivity in Large Language Modelscited by 0
  13. 2025A Multifaceted Analysis of Social Biases in Large Language Modelscited by 0
  14. 2026Auditing Disability Representation in Vision-Language Modelscited by 0
  15. 2026Investigating Disability Representations in Text-to-Image Modelscited by 0
  16. 2026Magic, Madness, Heaven, Sin: LLM Output Diversity is Everything, Everywhere, All at Oncecited by 0
  17. 2026Shiny Stories, Hidden Struggles: Investigating the Representation of Disability Through the Lens of LLMscited by 0
  18. 2026Beyond wheelchairs and blindfolds: Investigating disability stereotypes in T2I models with INCLUDE-BENCHcited by 0