mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

3D-StyleGAN: A Style-Based Generative Adversarial Network for Generative Modeling of Three-Dimensional Medical Images

arXiv 2107.09700 ↗First posted 20 Jul 2021eess.IV cs.CV cs.LGcited by 32

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Abstract (arXiv)

Image synthesis via Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) of three-dimensional (3D) medical images has great potential that can be extended to many medical applications, such as, image enhancement and disease progression modeling. However, current GAN technologies for 3D medical image synthesis need to be significantly improved to be readily adapted to real-world medical problems. In this paper, we extend the state-of-the-art StyleGAN2 model, which natively works with two-dimensional images, to enable 3D image synthesis. In addition to the image synthesis, we investigate the controllability and interpretability of the 3D-StyleGAN via style vectors inherited form the original StyleGAN2 that are highly suitable for medical applications: (i) the latent space projection and reconstruction of unseen real images, and (ii) style mixing. We demonstrate the 3D-StyleGAN's performance and feasibility with ~12,000 three-dimensional full brain MR T1 images, although it can be applied to any 3D volumetric images. Furthermore, we explore different configurations of hyperparameters to investigate potential improvement of the image synthesis with larger networks. The codes and pre-trained networks are available online: https://github.com/sh4174/3DStyleGAN.

Key facts. Cited by 32 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 15 of its 33 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 20 Jul 2021.

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15 of 33 references.

References · 15

  1. 2015Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognitioncited by 51,809
  2. 2014Very Deep Convolutional Networks for Large-Scale Image Recognitioncited by 15,267
  3. 2018The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Deep Features as a Perceptual Metriccited by 11,029
  4. 2018A Style-Based Generator Architecture for Generative Adversarial Networkscited by 5,986
  5. 2019Analyzing and Improving the Image Quality of StyleGANcited by 3,580
  6. 2017Progressive Growing of GANs for Improved Quality, Stability, and Variationcited by 2,967
  7. 2018Large Scale GAN Training for High Fidelity Natural Image Synthesiscited by 2,609
  8. 2017Arbitrary Style Transfer in Real-time with Adaptive Instance Normalizationcited by 1,998
  9. 2020Training Generative Adversarial Networks with Limited Datacited by 1,184
  10. 2019Image2StyleGAN: How to Embed Images Into the StyleGAN Latent Space?cited by 675
  11. 2016Conditional Image Synthesis With Auxiliary Classifier GANscited by 562
  12. 2017Can Spatiotemporal 3D CNNs Retrace the History of 2D CNNs and ImageNet?cited by 551
3 more
  1. 2019Generation of 3D Brain MRI Using Auto-Encoding Generative Adversarial Networkscited by 65
  2. 2019Anatomical Priors in Convolutional Networks for Unsupervised Biomedical Segmentationcited by 40
  3. 2020Modelling the Distribution of 3D Brain MRI using a 2D Slice VAEcited by 20

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2021: 1; 2022: 9; 2023: 9; 2024: 5; 2025: 5; 2026: 3.

32 papers.

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  1. 2023Conditional Diffusion Models for Semantic 3D Brain MRI Synthesiscited by 85
  2. 2024WDM: 3D Wavelet Diffusion Models for High-Resolution Medical Image Synthesiscited by 56
  3. 2021Equitable modelling of brain imaging by counterfactual augmentation with morphologically constrained 3D deep generative modelscited by 36
  4. 2024Deep Generative Models for 3D Medical Image Synthesiscited by 14
  5. 2023Metadata-Conditioned Generative Models to Synthesize Anatomically-Plausible 3D Brain MRIscited by 12
  6. 2022Assessing the ability of generative adversarial networks to learn canonical medical image statisticscited by 11
  7. 2022Three-dimensional microstructure generation using generative adversarial neural networks in the context of continuum micromechanicscited by 11
  8. 2022Inflating 2D Convolution Weights for Efficient Generation of 3D Medical Imagescited by 8
  9. 2023Multiscale Metamorphic VAE for 3D Brain MRI Synthesiscited by 8
  10. 2023Generating 3D Brain Tumor Regions in MRI using Vector-Quantization Generative Adversarial Networkscited by 6
  11. 20223D Brain and Heart Volume Generative Models: A Surveycited by 4
  12. 2022A Self-attention Guided Multi-scale Gradient GAN for Diversified X-ray Image Synthesiscited by 4
20 more
  1. 2022Mining the manifolds of deep generative models for multiple data-consistent solutions of ill-posed tomographic imaging problemscited by 3
  2. 2023Explicit Temporal Embedding in Deep Generative Latent Models for Longitudinal Medical Image Synthesiscited by 3
  3. 2023Metrics to Quantify Global Consistency in Synthetic Medical Imagescited by 3
  4. 2022Improved α-GAN architecture for generating 3D connected volumes with an application to radiosurgery treatment planningcited by 2
  5. 2024Merging synthetic and real embryo data for advanced AI predictionscited by 2
  6. 2025Semantics versus Identity: A Divide-and-Conquer Approach towards Adjustable Medical Image De-Identificationcited by 2
  7. 2026Pixel-Level Residual Diffusion Transformer: Scalable 3D CT Volume Generationcited by 2
  8. 2022Evaluating Procedures for Establishing Generative Adversarial Network-based Stochastic Image Models in Medical Imagingcited by 1
  9. 2025USB: Unified Synthetic Brain Framework for Bidirectional Pathology-Healthy Generation and Editingcited by 1
  10. 2022Highly Accurate FMRI ADHD Classification using time distributed multi modal 3D CNNscited by 0
  11. 2023Optimizing CAD Models with Latent Space Manipulationcited by 0
  12. 2023Causal Image Synthesis of Brain MR in 3Dcited by 0
  13. 2023Three-dimensional Bone Image Synthesis with Generative Adversarial Networkscited by 0
  14. 2024Evaluating Utility of Memory Efficient Medical Image Generation: A Study on Lung Nodule Segmentationcited by 0
  15. 2024Longitudinal Causal Image Synthesiscited by 0
  16. 2025Comparative clinical evaluation of "memory-efficient" synthetic 3d generative adversarial networks (gan) head-to-head to state of art: results on computed tomography of the chestcited by 0
  17. 2025Memory-Efficient 3D High-Resolution Medical Image Synthesis Using CRF-Guided GANscited by 0
  18. 2025TumorGen: Boundary-Aware Tumor-Mask Synthesis with Rectified Flow Matchingcited by 0
  19. 2026TCAM-Diff: Triplane-Aware Cross-Attention Medical Diffusion Modelcited by 0
  20. 2026High-Capacity Robust Medical Image Exfiltration via Neural Network Weight Replacementcited by 0