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RepBERT: Contextualized Text Embeddings for First-Stage Retrieval

arXiv 2006.15498 ↗First posted 28 Jun 2020cs.IRcited by 46

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Abstract (arXiv)

Although exact term match between queries and documents is the dominant method to perform first-stage retrieval, we propose a different approach, called RepBERT, to represent documents and queries with fixed-length contextualized embeddings. The inner products of query and document embeddings are regarded as relevance scores. On MS MARCO Passage Ranking task, RepBERT achieves state-of-the-art results among all initial retrieval techniques. And its efficiency is comparable to bag-of-words methods.

Key facts. Cited by 46 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 28 Jun 2020.

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Citing papers per year: 2021: 10; 2022: 11; 2023: 9; 2024: 5; 2025: 9; 2026: 2.

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  1. 2021ColBERTv2: Effective and Efficient Retrieval via Lightweight Late Interactioncited by 464
  2. 2021RocketQAv2: A Joint Training Method for Dense Passage Retrieval and Passage Re-rankingcited by 175
  3. 2021mMARCO: A Multilingual Version of the MS MARCO Passage Ranking Datasetcited by 116
  4. 2021Adversarial Retriever-Ranker for dense text retrievalcited by 82
  5. 2023SAILER: Structure-aware Pre-trained Language Model for Legal Case Retrievalcited by 61
  6. 2021A Replication Study of Dense Passage Retrievercited by 37
  7. 2023LeCaRDv2: A Large-Scale Chinese Legal Case Retrieval Datasetcited by 37
  8. 2022Fine-Grained Distillation for Long Document Retrievalcited by 29
  9. 2022CharacterBERT and Self-Teaching for Improving the Robustness of Dense Retrievers on Queries with Typoscited by 22
  10. 2023MILL: Mutual Verification with Large Language Models for Zero-Shot Query Expansioncited by 22
  11. 2022SimANS: Simple Ambiguous Negatives Sampling for Dense Text Retrievalcited by 21
  12. 2024Utilizing BERT for Information Retrieval: Survey, Applications, Resources, and Challengescited by 20
34 more
  1. 2024Leveraging Passage Embeddings for Efficient Listwise Reranking with Large Language Modelscited by 20
  2. 2021Corpus-Level Evaluation for Event QA: The IndiaPoliceEvents Corpus Covering the 2002 Gujarat Violencecited by 19
  3. 2022Mixed-modality Representation Learning and Pre-training for Joint Table-and-Text Retrieval in OpenQAcited by 17
  4. 2022ConTextual Masked Auto-Encoder for Dense Passage Retrievalcited by 16
  5. 2023THUIR@COLIEE 2023: Incorporating Structural Knowledge into Pre-trained Language Models for Legal Case Retrievalcited by 16
  6. 2023Constructing Tree-based Index for Efficient and Effective Dense Retrievalcited by 15
  7. 2021Improving Document Representations by Generating Pseudo Query Embeddings for Dense Retrievalcited by 14
  8. 2022Incorporating Explicit Knowledge in Pre-trained Language Models for Passage Re-rankingcited by 10
  9. 2024Entity Retrieval for Answering Entity-Centric Questionscited by 10
  10. 2025Lightweight and Direct Document Relevance Optimization for Generative Information Retrievalcited by 9
  11. 2022Isotropic Representation Can Improve Dense Retrievalcited by 8
  12. 2021Ultra-High Dimensional Sparse Representations with Binarization for Efficient Text Retrievalcited by 7
  13. 2021Siamese BERT-based Model for Web Search Relevance Ranking Evaluated on a New Czech Datasetcited by 7
  14. 2022MASTER: Multi-task Pre-trained Bottlenecked Masked Autoencoders are Better Dense Retrieverscited by 7
  15. 2025Optimizing Case-Based Reasoning System for Functional Test Script Generation with Large Language Modelscited by 7
  16. 2022Modality-Balanced Embedding for Video Retrievalcited by 6
  17. 2022SeDR: Segment Representation Learning for Long Documents Dense Retrievalcited by 6
  18. 2023Typo-Robust Representation Learning for Dense Retrievalcited by 6
  19. 2023CAME: Competitively Learning a Mixture-of-Experts Model for First-stage Retrievalcited by 6
  20. 2025Exp4Fuse: A Rank Fusion Framework for Enhanced Sparse Retrieval using Large Language Model-based Query Expansioncited by 6
  21. 2023CoT-MAE v2: Contextual Masked Auto-Encoder with Multi-view Modeling for Passage Retrievalcited by 5
  22. 2025UniMoCo: Unified Modality Completion for Robust Multi-Modal Embeddingscited by 5
  23. 2021CODER: An efficient framework for improving retrieval through COntextual Document Embedding Rerankingcited by 4
  24. 2024Preserving Multilingual Quality While Tuning Query Encoder on English Onlycited by 3
  25. 2022Asyncval: A Toolkit for Asynchronously Validating Dense Retriever Checkpoints during Trainingcited by 2
  26. 2024Bootstrapped Pre-training with Dynamic Identifier Prediction for Generative Retrievalcited by 2
  27. 2025Multimodal semantic retrieval for product searchcited by 2
  28. 2025LLM-VPRF: Large Language Model Based Vector Pseudo Relevance Feedbackcited by 2
  29. 2025DiffuGR: Generative Document Retrieval with Diffusion Language Modelscited by 2
  30. 2025QDER: Query-Specific Document and Entity Representations for Multi-Vector Document Re-Rankingcited by 1
  31. 2026Analytical Searchcited by 1
  32. 2023On Elastic Language Modelscited by 0
  33. 2025Theoretical Guarantees for LT-TTD: A Unified Transformer-based Architecture for Two-Level Ranking Systemscited by 0
  34. 2026UniGD: A Unified Generative-Discriminative Framework for Industrial Retrievalcited by 0