Evaluation of CNN-based Automatic Music Tagging Models
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Abstract (arXiv)
Recent advances in deep learning accelerated the development of content-based automatic music tagging systems. Music information retrieval (MIR) researchers proposed various architecture designs, mainly based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs), that achieve state-of-the-art results in this multi-label binary classification task. However, due to the differences in experimental setups followed by researchers, such as using different dataset splits and software versions for evaluation, it is difficult to compare the proposed architectures directly with each other. To facilitate further research, in this paper we conduct a consistent evaluation of different music tagging models on three datasets (MagnaTagATune, Million Song Dataset, and MTG-Jamendo) and provide reference results using common evaluation metrics (ROC-AUC and PR-AUC). Furthermore, all the models are evaluated with perturbed inputs to investigate the generalization capabilities concerning time stretch, pitch shift, dynamic range compression, and addition of white noise. For reproducibility, we provide the PyTorch implementations with the pre-trained models.
Key facts. Cited by 39 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 1 Jun 2020.
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Citing papers per year: 2021: 11; 2022: 7; 2023: 10; 2024: 6; 2025: 5.
39 papers.
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- 2022MuLan: A Joint Embedding of Music Audio and Natural Languagecited by 85
- 2025MuQ: Self-Supervised Music Representation Learning with Mel Residual Vector Quantizationcited by 66
- 2021Codified audio language modeling learns useful representations for music information retrievalcited by 61
- 2023MusiLingo: Bridging Music and Text with Pre-trained Language Models for Music Captioning and Query Responsecited by 45
- 2022Supervised and Unsupervised Learning of Audio Representations for Music Understandingcited by 34
- 2021MusCaps: Generating Captions for Music Audiocited by 23
- 2023MuseChat: A Conversational Music Recommendation System for Videoscited by 21
- 2023Language-Guided Music Recommendation for Video via Prompt Analogiescited by 18
- 2022Low-Resource Music Genre Classification with Cross-Modal Neural Model Reprogrammingcited by 17
- 2021SpecTNT: a Time-Frequency Transformer for Music Audiocited by 15
- 2021Learning music audio representations via weak language supervisioncited by 13
- 2021Tr"aumerAI: Dreaming Music with StyleGANcited by 11
27 more
- 2022The Chamber Ensemble Generator: Limitless High-Quality MIR Data via Generative Modelingcited by 10
- 2024OpenMU: Your Swiss Army Knife for Music Understandingcited by 9
- 2022YM2413-MDB: A Multi-Instrumental FM Video Game Music Dataset with Emotion Annotationscited by 7
- 2023Perceptual Musical Features for Interpretable Audio Taggingcited by 7
- 2022Jointist: Joint Learning for Multi-instrument Transcription and Its Applicationscited by 6
- 2024LC-Protonets: Multi-Label Few-Shot Learning for World Music Audio Taggingcited by 6
- 2021Improving Sound Event Classification by Increasing Shift Invariance in Convolutional Neural Networkscited by 5
- 2023From West to East: Who can understand the music of the others better?cited by 5
- 2023Joint Music and Language Attention Models for Zero-shot Music Taggingcited by 5
- 2024I can listen but cannot read: An evaluation of two-tower multimodal systems for instrument recognitioncited by 4
- 2021Deep Learning Based EDM Subgenre Classification using Mel-Spectrogram and Tempogram Featurescited by 3
- 2022Music-to-Text Synaesthesia: Generating Descriptive Text from Music Recordingscited by 3
- 2023Jointist: Simultaneous Improvement of Multi-instrument Transcription and Music Source Separation via Joint Trainingcited by 3
- 2025Myna: Masking-Based Contrastive Learning of Musical Representationscited by 3
- 2025Universal Music Representations? Evaluating Foundation Models on World Music Corporacited by 3
- 2021Listen, Read, and Identify: Multimodal Singing Language Identification of Musiccited by 2
- 2024Embedding Compression for Teacher-to-Student Knowledge Transfercited by 2
- 2021Unsupervised Source Separation By Steering Pretrained Music Modelscited by 1
- 2023Towards Contrastive Learning in Music Video Domaincited by 1
- 2023MDSC: Towards Evaluating the Style Consistency Between Music and Dancecited by 1
- 2024Towards Training Music Taggers on Synthetic Datacited by 1
- 2024Music auto-tagging in the long tail: A few-shot approachcited by 1
- 2021MuSLCAT: Multi-Scale Multi-Level Convolutional Attention Transformer for Discriminative Music Modeling on Raw Waveformscited by 0
- 2021A Modulation Front-End for Music Audio Taggingcited by 0
- 2023Self-supervised Auxiliary Loss for Metric Learning in Music Similarity-based Retrieval and Auto-taggingcited by 0
- 2025Sparse Hybrid Linear-Morphological Networkscited by 0
- 2025Learning Music Audio Representations With Limited Datacited by 0
- 2025Universal Music Representations? Evaluating Foundation Models on World Music Corpora20 Jun 2025
- 2025Learning Music Audio Representations With Limited Data9 May 2025
- 2025Sparse Hybrid Linear-Morphological Networks12 Apr 2025
- 2025Myna: Masking-Based Contrastive Learning of Musical Representations18 Feb 2025
- 2025MuQ: Self-Supervised Music Representation Learning with Mel Residual Vector Quantization2 Jan 2025
- 2024OpenMU: Your Swiss Army Knife for Music Understanding21 Oct 2024
- 2024LC-Protonets: Multi-Label Few-Shot Learning for World Music Audio Tagging17 Sep 2024
- 2024Music auto-tagging in the long tail: A few-shot approach12 Sep 2024
- 2024I can listen but cannot read: An evaluation of two-tower multimodal systems for instrument recognition25 Jul 2024
- 2024Towards Training Music Taggers on Synthetic Data2 Jul 2024
- 2024Embedding Compression for Teacher-to-Student Knowledge Transfer9 Feb 2024
- 2023Perceptual Musical Features for Interpretable Audio Tagging18 Dec 2023
27 more
- 2023Joint Music and Language Attention Models for Zero-shot Music Tagging16 Oct 2023
- 2023MuseChat: A Conversational Music Recommendation System for Videos10 Oct 2023
- 2023MusiLingo: Bridging Music and Text with Pre-trained Language Models for Music Captioning and Query Response15 Sep 2023
- 2023MDSC: Towards Evaluating the Style Consistency Between Music and Dance4 Sep 2023
- 2023Towards Contrastive Learning in Music Video Domain1 Sep 2023
- 2023From West to East: Who can understand the music of the others better?19 Jul 2023
- 2023Language-Guided Music Recommendation for Video via Prompt Analogies15 Jun 2023
- 2023Self-supervised Auxiliary Loss for Metric Learning in Music Similarity-based Retrieval and Auto-tagging15 Apr 2023
- 2023Jointist: Simultaneous Improvement of Multi-instrument Transcription and Music Source Separation via Joint Training1 Feb 2023
- 2022YM2413-MDB: A Multi-Instrumental FM Video Game Music Dataset with Emotion Annotations14 Nov 2022
- 2022Low-Resource Music Genre Classification with Cross-Modal Neural Model Reprogramming2 Nov 2022
- 2022Supervised and Unsupervised Learning of Audio Representations for Music Understanding7 Oct 2022
- 2022Music-to-Text Synaesthesia: Generating Descriptive Text from Music Recordings2 Oct 2022
- 2022The Chamber Ensemble Generator: Limitless High-Quality MIR Data via Generative Modeling28 Sep 2022
- 2022MuLan: A Joint Embedding of Music Audio and Natural Language26 Aug 2022
- 2022Jointist: Joint Learning for Multi-instrument Transcription and Its Applications22 Jun 2022
- 2021Learning music audio representations via weak language supervision8 Dec 2021
- 2021Unsupervised Source Separation By Steering Pretrained Music Models25 Oct 2021
- 2021SpecTNT: a Time-Frequency Transformer for Music Audio18 Oct 2021
- 2021Deep Learning Based EDM Subgenre Classification using Mel-Spectrogram and Tempogram Features17 Oct 2021
- 2021Codified audio language modeling learns useful representations for music information retrieval12 Jul 2021
- 2021Improving Sound Event Classification by Increasing Shift Invariance in Convolutional Neural Networks1 Jul 2021
- 2021A Modulation Front-End for Music Audio Tagging25 May 2021
- 2021MusCaps: Generating Captions for Music Audio24 Apr 2021
- 2021MuSLCAT: Multi-Scale Multi-Level Convolutional Attention Transformer for Discriminative Music Modeling on Raw Waveforms6 Apr 2021
- 2021Listen, Read, and Identify: Multimodal Singing Language Identification of Music2 Mar 2021
- 2021Tr"aumerAI: Dreaming Music with StyleGAN9 Feb 2021
- 2022MuLan: A Joint Embedding of Music Audio and Natural Languagecited by 85
- 2025MuQ: Self-Supervised Music Representation Learning with Mel Residual Vector Quantizationcited by 66
- 2021Codified audio language modeling learns useful representations for music information retrievalcited by 61
- 2023MusiLingo: Bridging Music and Text with Pre-trained Language Models for Music Captioning and Query Responsecited by 45
- 2022Supervised and Unsupervised Learning of Audio Representations for Music Understandingcited by 34
- 2021MusCaps: Generating Captions for Music Audiocited by 23
- 2023MuseChat: A Conversational Music Recommendation System for Videoscited by 21
- 2023Language-Guided Music Recommendation for Video via Prompt Analogiescited by 18
- 2022Low-Resource Music Genre Classification with Cross-Modal Neural Model Reprogrammingcited by 17
- 2021SpecTNT: a Time-Frequency Transformer for Music Audiocited by 15
- 2021Learning music audio representations via weak language supervisioncited by 13
- 2021Tr"aumerAI: Dreaming Music with StyleGANcited by 11
12 most cited of 39 All 39 (JSON)
- 2025Universal Music Representations? Evaluating Foundation Models on World Music Corpora20 Jun 2025
- 2025Learning Music Audio Representations With Limited Data9 May 2025
- 2025Sparse Hybrid Linear-Morphological Networks12 Apr 2025
- 2025Myna: Masking-Based Contrastive Learning of Musical Representations18 Feb 2025
- 2025MuQ: Self-Supervised Music Representation Learning with Mel Residual Vector Quantization2 Jan 2025
- 2024OpenMU: Your Swiss Army Knife for Music Understanding21 Oct 2024
- 2024LC-Protonets: Multi-Label Few-Shot Learning for World Music Audio Tagging17 Sep 2024
- 2024Music auto-tagging in the long tail: A few-shot approach12 Sep 2024
- 2024I can listen but cannot read: An evaluation of two-tower multimodal systems for instrument recognition25 Jul 2024
- 2024Towards Training Music Taggers on Synthetic Data2 Jul 2024
- 2024Embedding Compression for Teacher-to-Student Knowledge Transfer9 Feb 2024
- 2023Perceptual Musical Features for Interpretable Audio Tagging18 Dec 2023
12 newest of 39 All 39 (JSON)