mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Multimodal Machine Learning for Automated ICD Coding

arXiv 1810.13348 ↗First posted 31 Oct 2018cs.LG stat.MLcited by 40

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Abstract (arXiv)

This study presents a multimodal machine learning model to predict ICD-10 diagnostic codes. We developed separate machine learning models that can handle data from different modalities, including unstructured text, semi-structured text and structured tabular data. We further employed an ensemble method to integrate all modality-specific models to generate ICD-10 codes. Key evidence was also extracted to make our prediction more convincing and explainable. We used the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care III (MIMIC -III) dataset to validate our approach. For ICD code prediction, our best-performing model (micro-F1 = 0.7633, micro-AUC = 0.9541) significantly outperforms other baseline models including TF-IDF (micro-F1 = 0.6721, micro-AUC = 0.7879) and Text-CNN model (micro-F1 = 0.6569, micro-AUC = 0.9235). For interpretability, our approach achieves a Jaccard Similarity Coefficient (JSC) of 0.1806 on text data and 0.3105 on tabular data, where well-trained physicians achieve 0.2780 and 0.5002 respectively.

Key facts. Cited by 40 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 31 Oct 2018.

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2021: 11; 2022: 10; 2023: 5; 2024: 8; 2025: 3; 2026: 3.

40 papers.

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  1. 2021MultiBench: Multiscale Benchmarks for Multimodal Representation Learningcited by 143
  2. 2022MultiViz: Towards Visualizing and Understanding Multimodal Modelscited by 36
  3. 2021Neural Natural Language Processing for Unstructured Data in Electronic Health Records: a Reviewcited by 35
  4. 2022DIME: Fine-grained Interpretations of Multimodal Models via Disentangled Local Explanationscited by 34
  5. 2022Automated Clinical Coding: What, Why, and Where We Are?cited by 33
  6. 2022A Unified Review of Deep Learning for Automated Medical Codingcited by 26
  7. 2021Imbalanced Big Data Oversampling: Taxonomy, Algorithms, Software, Guidelines and Future Directionscited by 21
  8. 2024HEMM: Holistic Evaluation of Multimodal Foundation Modelscited by 21
  9. 2024An Unsupervised Approach to Achieve Supervised-Level Explainability in Healthcare Recordscited by 12
  10. 2021A Systematic Literature Review of Automated ICD Coding and Classification Systems using Discharge Summariescited by 10
  11. 2024Large language models are good medical coders, if provided with toolscited by 8
  12. 2021Attack-agnostic Adversarial Detection on Medical Data Using Explainable Machine Learningcited by 7
28 more
  1. 2021Machine Learning for Multimodal Electronic Health Records-based Research: Challenges and Perspectivescited by 7
  2. 2022Classifying Unstructured Clinical Notes via Automatic Weak Supervisioncited by 7
  3. 2024SimSUM: Simulated Benchmark with Structured and Unstructured Medical Recordscited by 6
  4. 2023MuG: A Multimodal Classification Benchmark on Game Data with Tabular, Textual, and Visual Fieldscited by 5
  5. 2023TreeMAN: Tree-enhanced Multimodal Attention Network for ICD Codingcited by 5
  6. 2022Brainish: Formalizing A Multimodal Language for Intelligence and Consciousnesscited by 4
  7. 2023MultiZoo & MultiBench: A Standardized Toolkit for Multimodal Deep Learningcited by 4
  8. 2024Examining Imbalance Effects on Performance and Demographic Fairness of Clinical Language Modelscited by 4
  9. 2021Multimodal Feature Fusion for Video Advertisements Tagging Via Stacking Ensemblecited by 3
  10. 2022Multimodal Machine Learning in Precision Healthcited by 3
  11. 2022HieNet: Bidirectional Hierarchy Framework for Automated ICD Codingcited by 3
  12. 2021A Meta-embedding-based Ensemble Approach for ICD Coding Predictioncited by 2
  13. 2024Large Language Model in Medical Informatics: Direct Classification and Enhanced Text Representations for Automatic ICD Codingcited by 2
  14. 2021Few-Shot Electronic Health Record Coding through Graph Contrastive Learningcited by 1
  15. 2022A Scalable Workflow to Build Machine Learning Classifiers with Clinician-in-the-Loop to Identify Patients in Specific Diseasescited by 1
  16. 2022Automated Fidelity Assessment for Strategy Training in Inpatient Rehabilitation using Natural Language Processingcited by 1
  17. 2025RuCCoD: Towards Automated ICD Coding in Russiancited by 1
  18. 2021From Extreme Multi-label to Multi-class: A Hierarchical Approach for Automated ICD-10 Coding Using Phrase-level Attentioncited by 0
  19. 2021Multimodal Classification: Current Landscape, Taxonomy and Future Directionscited by 0
  20. 2023Is In-hospital Meta-information Useful for Abstractive Discharge Summary Generation?cited by 0
  21. 2023Autoencoder-based prediction of ICU clinical codescited by 0
  22. 2024Multi-modal Masked Siamese Network Improves Chest X-Ray Representation Learningcited by 0
  23. 2024Improving ICD coding using Chapter based Named Entities and Attentional Modelscited by 0
  24. 2025Predictive Multimodal Modeling of Diagnoses and Treatments in EHRcited by 0
  25. 2025Patient-level Information Extraction by Consistent Integration of Textual and Tabular Evidence with Bayesian Networkscited by 0
  26. 2026A General Multimodal Probing Framework for Data Fusion and Prediction with Frozen Large Language Models: Evidence from Multimodal EHR Datacited by 0
  27. 2026Deep Label-Wise Attentive Temporal Convolutional Networks Improve Medical Codingcited by 0
  28. 2026xMICD: Explainable Representation of Multiple ICD Codescited by 0