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Exploiting Similarities among Languages for Machine Translation

arXiv 1309.4168 ↗First posted 17 Sep 2013cs.CLcited by 187

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Abstract (arXiv)

Dictionaries and phrase tables are the basis of modern statistical machine translation systems. This paper develops a method that can automate the process of generating and extending dictionaries and phrase tables. Our method can translate missing word and phrase entries by learning language structures based on large monolingual data and mapping between languages from small bilingual data. It uses distributed representation of words and learns a linear mapping between vector spaces of languages. Despite its simplicity, our method is surprisingly effective: we can achieve almost 90% precision@5 for translation of words between English and Spanish. This method makes little assumption about the languages, so it can be used to extend and refine dictionaries and translation tables for any language pairs.

Key facts. Cited by 187 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 17 Sep 2013.

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Citing papers per year: 2021: 46; 2022: 43; 2023: 29; 2024: 28; 2025: 21; 2026: 20.

187 papers.

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  1. 2023The Linear Representation Hypothesis and the Geometry of Large Language Modelscited by 679
  2. 2021Few-shot Learning with Multilingual Language Modelscited by 278
  3. 2023ChatGPT Beyond English: Towards a Comprehensive Evaluation of Large Language Models in Multilingual Learningcited by 203
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  5. 2021Unsupervised Speech Recognitioncited by 147
  6. 2021mMARCO: A Multilingual Version of the MS MARCO Passage Ranking Datasetcited by 116
  7. 2021Cross-Attention is All You Need: Adapting Pretrained Transformers for Machine Translationcited by 74
  8. 2024The Semantic Hub Hypothesis: Language Models Share Semantic Representations Across Languages and Modalitiescited by 69
  9. 2021First Align, then Predict: Understanding the Cross-Lingual Ability of Multilingual BERTcited by 64
  10. 2021A Primer on Pretrained Multilingual Language Modelscited by 49
  11. 2023Latent Space Translation via Semantic Alignmentcited by 46
  12. 2022Expanding Pretrained Models to Thousands More Languages via Lexicon-based Adaptationcited by 44
38 more
  1. 2024Do Vision and Language Encoders Represent the World Similarly?cited by 44
  2. 2021Consistency Regularization for Cross-Lingual Fine-Tuningcited by 41
  3. 2023Black Box Few-Shot Adaptation for Vision-Language modelscited by 39
  4. 2025Shared Global and Local Geometry of Language Model Embeddingscited by 34
  5. 2023CiCo: Domain-Aware Sign Language Retrieval via Cross-Lingual Contrastive Learningcited by 32
  6. 2022Match the Script, Adapt if Multilingual: Analyzing the Effect of Multilingual Pretraining on Cross-lingual Transferabilitycited by 26
  7. 2025Middle-Layer Representation Alignment for Cross-Lingual Transfer in Fine-Tuned LLMscited by 26
  8. 2024Bridging the Language Gaps in Large Language Models with Inference-Time Cross-Lingual Interventioncited by 24
  9. 2025Mechanistic Interpretability of Emotion Inference in Large Language Modelscited by 24
  10. 2021On Cross-Lingual Retrieval with Multilingual Text Encoderscited by 22
  11. 2021Improving Zero-Shot Cross-Lingual Transfer Learning via Robust Trainingcited by 21
  12. 2021Bilingual Lexicon Induction via Unsupervised Bitext Construction and Word Alignmentcited by 19
  13. 2021Using Optimal Transport as Alignment Objective for fine-tuning Multilingual Contextualized Embeddingscited by 19
  14. 2023Discovering Universal Geometry in Embeddings with ICAcited by 19
  15. 2023Hyperpolyglot LLMs: Cross-Lingual Interpretability in Token Embeddingscited by 19
  16. 2022Improving Word Translation via Two-Stage Contrastive Learningcited by 18
  17. 2021Crossing the Conversational Chasm: A Primer on Natural Language Processing for Multilingual Task-Oriented Dialogue Systemscited by 16
  18. 2022Learning Backward Compatible Embeddingscited by 16
  19. 2022USCORE: An Effective Approach to Fully Unsupervised Evaluation Metrics for Machine Translationcited by 15
  20. 2024Attention layers provably solve single-location regressioncited by 15
  21. 2021Multilingual and cross-lingual document classification: A meta-learning approachcited by 14
  22. 2021AM2iCo: Evaluating Word Meaning in Context across Low-Resource Languages with Adversarial Examplescited by 14
  23. 2025Language Model Behavioral Phases are Consistent Across Architecture, Training Data, and Scalecited by 13
  24. 2021Combining Static Word Embeddings and Contextual Representations for Bilingual Lexicon Inductioncited by 12
  25. 2021Subword Mapping and Anchoring across Languagescited by 12
  26. 2022Reducing Retraining by Recycling Parameter-Efficient Promptscited by 11
  27. 2021Multi-source Learning via Completion of Block-wise Overlapping Noisy Matricescited by 10
  28. 2021Code-switched inspired losses for generic spoken dialog representationscited by 10
  29. 2022Cross-Linguistic Syntactic Difference in Multilingual BERT: How Good is It and How Does It Affect Transfer?cited by 10
  30. 2023Massively Multilingual Corpus of Sentiment Datasets and Multi-faceted Sentiment Classification Benchmarkcited by 10
  31. 2024Latent Space Translation via Inverse Relative Projectioncited by 10
  32. 2024T-FREE: Subword Tokenizer-Free Generative LLMs via Sparse Representations for Memory-Efficient Embeddingscited by 10
  33. 2021Unsupervised Multilingual Sentence Embeddings for Parallel Corpus Miningcited by 9
  34. 2021Identification of Biased Terms in News Articles by Comparison of Outlet-specific Word Embeddingscited by 9
  35. 2025GenRecal: Generation after Recalibration from Large to Small Vision-Language Modelscited by 9
  36. 2021Analyzing Zero-shot Cross-lingual Transfer in Supervised NLP Taskscited by 8
  37. 2021Bootstrapping Multilingual AMR with Contextual Word Alignmentscited by 8
  38. 2022Towards a Broad Coverage Named Entity Resource: A Data-Efficient Approach for Many Diverse Languagescited by 8

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