Toxicity Detection for Free
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Abstract (arXiv)
Current LLMs are generally aligned to follow safety requirements and tend to refuse toxic prompts. However, LLMs can fail to refuse toxic prompts or be overcautious and refuse benign examples. In addition, state-of-the-art toxicity detectors have low TPRs at low FPR, incurring high costs in real-world applications where toxic examples are rare. In this paper, we introduce Moderation Using LLM Introspection (MULI), which detects toxic prompts using the information extracted directly from LLMs themselves. We found we can distinguish between benign and toxic prompts from the distribution of the first response token's logits. Using this idea, we build a robust detector of toxic prompts using a sparse logistic regression model on the first response token logits. Our scheme outperforms SOTA detectors under multiple metrics.
Key facts. Cited by 15 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). Builds on 20 of its 32 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 29 May 2024.
Builds on
20 of 32 references.
References · 20
- 2023GPT-4 Technical Reportcited by 18,396
- 2022Training language models to follow instructions with human feedbackcited by 15,971
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- 2023Judging LLM-as-a-Judge with MT-Bench and Chatbot Arenacited by 8,626
- 2023Toolformer: Language Models Can Teach Themselves to Use Toolscited by 4,182
- 2023Mistral 7Bcited by 3,164
- 2023Universal and Transferable Adversarial Attacks on Aligned Language Modelscited by 3,104
- 2022Scaling Instruction-Finetuned Language Modelscited by 3,024
- 2023Jailbroken: How Does LLM Safety Training Fail?cited by 1,651
- 2023Llama Guard: LLM-based Input-Output Safeguard for Human-AI Conversationscited by 1,207
- 2021Ethical and social risks of harm from Language Modelscited by 966
- 2023Jailbreaking ChatGPT via Prompt Engineering: An Empirical Studycited by 498
8 more
- 2023LMSYS-Chat-1M: A Large-Scale Real-World LLM Conversation Datasetcited by 461
- 2022A Holistic Approach to Undesired Content Detection in the Real Worldcited by 356
- 2023Large Language Models as Tool Makerscited by 303
- 2023Large Language Model Alignment: A Surveycited by 243
- 2020Social Biases in NLP Models as Barriers for Persons with Disabilitiescited by 182
- 2023From ChatGPT to ThreatGPT: Impact of Generative AI in Cybersecurity and Privacycited by 143
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Citing papers per year: 2024: 3; 2025: 7; 2026: 5.
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- 2024Programming Refusal with Conditional Activation Steeringcited by 206
- 2024Bias in Large Language Models: Origin, Evaluation, and Mitigationcited by 77
- 2024Identifying Knowledge Editing Types in Large Language Modelscited by 7
- 2025Towards the Worst-case Robustness of Large Language Modelscited by 7
- 2025JailbreaksOverTime: Detecting Jailbreak Attacks Under Distribution Shiftcited by 5
- 2025Paladin: Defending LLM-enabled Phishing Emails with a New Trigger-Tag Paradigmcited by 5
- 2025JULI: Jailbreak Large Language Models by Self-Introspectioncited by 3
- 2025Calibrated Predictive Lower Bounds on Time-to-Unsafe-Sampling in LLMscited by 3
- 2026Disclosure By Design: Identity Transparency as a Behavioural Property of Conversational AI Modelscited by 3
- 2025Rethinking Toxicity Evaluation in Large Language Models: A Multi-Label Perspectivecited by 2
- 2025Beautiful Images, Toxic Words: Understanding and Addressing Offensive Text in Generated Imagescited by 0
- 2026GradShield: Alignment Preserving Finetuningcited by 0
3 more
- 2026D2-Monitor: Dynamic Safety Monitoring for Diffusion LLMs via Hesitation Signalscited by 0
- 2026Activation Steering for Synthetic Data Generation: The Role of Diversity in Downstream Safety Detectioncited by 0
- 2026xMIx: High-Performance Serving-Time Platform for Mechanistic Interpretability Appscited by 0
- 2026xMIx: High-Performance Serving-Time Platform for Mechanistic Interpretability Apps11 Jun 2026
- 2026Activation Steering for Synthetic Data Generation: The Role of Diversity in Downstream Safety Detection27 May 2026
- 2026D2-Monitor: Dynamic Safety Monitoring for Diffusion LLMs via Hesitation Signals25 May 2026
- 2026GradShield: Alignment Preserving Finetuning13 May 2026
- 2026Disclosure By Design: Identity Transparency as a Behavioural Property of Conversational AI Models27 Jan 2026
- 2025Rethinking Toxicity Evaluation in Large Language Models: A Multi-Label Perspective16 Oct 2025
- 2025Paladin: Defending LLM-enabled Phishing Emails with a New Trigger-Tag Paradigm8 Sep 2025
- 2025Calibrated Predictive Lower Bounds on Time-to-Unsafe-Sampling in LLMs16 Jun 2025
- 2025JULI: Jailbreak Large Language Models by Self-Introspection17 May 2025
- 2025JailbreaksOverTime: Detecting Jailbreak Attacks Under Distribution Shift28 Apr 2025
- 2025Beautiful Images, Toxic Words: Understanding and Addressing Offensive Text in Generated Images7 Feb 2025
- 2025Towards the Worst-case Robustness of Large Language Models31 Jan 2025
3 more
- 2025JULI: Jailbreak Large Language Models by Self-Introspection17 May 2025
- 2024Bias in Large Language Models: Origin, Evaluation, and Mitigationcited by 77
- 2024Identifying Knowledge Editing Types in Large Language Modelscited by 7
- 2025Towards the Worst-case Robustness of Large Language Modelscited by 7
- 2025Paladin: Defending LLM-enabled Phishing Emails with a New Trigger-Tag Paradigmcited by 5
- 2025Calibrated Predictive Lower Bounds on Time-to-Unsafe-Sampling in LLMscited by 3
- 2026Disclosure By Design: Identity Transparency as a Behavioural Property of Conversational AI Modelscited by 3
- 2026GradShield: Alignment Preserving Finetuningcited by 0
- 2026D2-Monitor: Dynamic Safety Monitoring for Diffusion LLMs via Hesitation Signalscited by 0
- 2026D2-Monitor: Dynamic Safety Monitoring for Diffusion LLMs via Hesitation Signals25 May 2026
- 2026GradShield: Alignment Preserving Finetuning13 May 2026
- 2026Disclosure By Design: Identity Transparency as a Behavioural Property of Conversational AI Models27 Jan 2026
- 2025Paladin: Defending LLM-enabled Phishing Emails with a New Trigger-Tag Paradigm8 Sep 2025
- 2025Calibrated Predictive Lower Bounds on Time-to-Unsafe-Sampling in LLMs16 Jun 2025
- 2025Towards the Worst-case Robustness of Large Language Models31 Jan 2025
- 2024Bias in Large Language Models: Origin, Evaluation, and Mitigation16 Nov 2024
- 2024Identifying Knowledge Editing Types in Large Language Models29 Sep 2024