Realistic Evaluation of Toxicity in Large Language Models
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Abstract (arXiv)
Large language models (LLMs) have become integral to our professional workflows and daily lives. Nevertheless, these machine companions of ours have a critical flaw: the huge amount of data which endows them with vast and diverse knowledge, also exposes them to the inevitable toxicity and bias. While most LLMs incorporate defense mechanisms to prevent the generation of harmful content, these safeguards can be easily bypassed with minimal prompt engineering. In this paper, we introduce the new Thoroughly Engineered Toxicity (TET) dataset, comprising manually crafted prompts designed to nullify the protective layers of such models. Through extensive evaluations, we demonstrate the pivotal role of TET in providing a rigorous benchmark for evaluation of toxicity awareness in several popular LLMs: it highlights the toxicity in the LLMs that might remain hidden when using normal prompts, thus revealing subtler issues in their behavior.
Key facts. Cited by 15 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). Builds on 12 of its 18 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 17 May 2024.
Builds on
12 of 18 references.
References · 12
- 2018BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understandingcited by 40,399
- 2020Language Models are Few-Shot Learnerscited by 32,419
- 2023Llama 2: Open Foundation and Fine-Tuned Chat Modelscited by 13,028
- 2019HuggingFace's Transformers: State-of-the-art Natural Language Processingcited by 2,218
- 2020RealToxicityPrompts: Evaluating Neural Toxic Degeneration in Language Modelscited by 1,255
- 2023Llama Guard: LLM-based Input-Output Safeguard for Human-AI Conversationscited by 1,207
- 2023Zephyr: Direct Distillation of LM Alignmentcited by 506
- 2023Jailbreaking ChatGPT via Prompt Engineering: An Empirical Studycited by 498
- 2023Toxicity in ChatGPT: Analyzing Persona-assigned Language Modelscited by 360
- 2023PandaLM: An Automatic Evaluation Benchmark for LLM Instruction Tuning Optimizationcited by 316
- 2023OpenChat: Advancing Open-source Language Models with Mixed-Quality Datacited by 252
- 2020HateBERT: Retraining BERT for Abusive Language Detection in Englishcited by 207
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Citing papers per year: 2024: 2; 2025: 10; 2026: 3.
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- 2025Head Pursuit: Probing Attention Specialization in Multimodal Transformerscited by 17
- 2025LinEAS: End-to-end Learning of Activation Steering with a Distributional Losscited by 14
- 2025TAI3: Testing Agent Integrity in Interpreting User Intentcited by 9
- 2024PalmBench: A Comprehensive Benchmark of Compressed Large Language Models on Mobile Platformscited by 8
- 2025Large Language Model Sourcing: A Surveycited by 5
- 2025MIST: Jailbreaking Black-box Large Language Models via Iterative Semantic Tuningcited by 3
- 2025Toxicity in Online Platforms and AI Systems: A Survey of Needs, Challenges, Mitigations, and Future Directionscited by 3
- 2025Evaluating Chinese Large Language Models: The Influence of Persona Assignment on Stereotypes and Safeguardscited by 2
- 2025Red Teaming Multimodal Language Models: Evaluating Harm Across Prompt Modalities and Modelscited by 1
- 2026ToxiTwitch: Toward Emote-Aware Hybrid Moderation for Live Streaming Platformscited by 1
- 2024DocNet: Semantic Structure in Inductive Bias Detection Modelscited by 0
- 2025Stated Preference for Interaction and Continued Engagement (SPICE): Evaluating an LLM's Willingness to Re-engage in Conversationcited by 0
- 2026The Safeguard Worked. Is the LLM System Safer?1 Sep 2026
- 2026Measuring and Mitigating Toxicity in Large Language Models: A Comprehensive Replication Study13 May 2026
- 2026ToxiTwitch: Toward Emote-Aware Hybrid Moderation for Live Streaming Platforms22 Jan 2026
- 2025Remembering Unequally: Global and Disciplinary Bias in LLM Reconstruction of Scholarly Coauthor Lists1 Nov 2025
- 2025Head Pursuit: Probing Attention Specialization in Multimodal Transformers24 Oct 2025
- 2025Large Language Model Sourcing: A Survey11 Oct 2025
- 2025Toxicity in Online Platforms and AI Systems: A Survey of Needs, Challenges, Mitigations, and Future Directions29 Sep 2025
- 2025Red Teaming Multimodal Language Models: Evaluating Harm Across Prompt Modalities and Models18 Sep 2025
- 2025Stated Preference for Interaction and Continued Engagement (SPICE): Evaluating an LLM's Willingness to Re-engage in Conversation10 Sep 2025
- 2025MIST: Jailbreaking Black-box Large Language Models via Iterative Semantic Tuning20 Jun 2025
- 2025TAI3: Testing Agent Integrity in Interpreting User Intent9 Jun 2025
- 2025Evaluating Chinese Large Language Models: The Influence of Persona Assignment on Stereotypes and Safeguards5 Jun 2025
- 2024PalmBench: A Comprehensive Benchmark of Compressed Large Language Models on Mobile Platformscited by 8
- 2025Large Language Model Sourcing: A Surveycited by 5
- 2025Toxicity in Online Platforms and AI Systems: A Survey of Needs, Challenges, Mitigations, and Future Directionscited by 3
- 2026ToxiTwitch: Toward Emote-Aware Hybrid Moderation for Live Streaming Platformscited by 1
- 2024DocNet: Semantic Structure in Inductive Bias Detection Modelscited by 0
- 2025Stated Preference for Interaction and Continued Engagement (SPICE): Evaluating an LLM's Willingness to Re-engage in Conversationcited by 0
- 2025Remembering Unequally: Global and Disciplinary Bias in LLM Reconstruction of Scholarly Coauthor Listscited by 0
- 2026Measuring and Mitigating Toxicity in Large Language Models: A Comprehensive Replication Studycited by 0
- 2026The Safeguard Worked. Is the LLM System Safer?cited by 0
- 2026The Safeguard Worked. Is the LLM System Safer?1 Sep 2026
- 2026Measuring and Mitigating Toxicity in Large Language Models: A Comprehensive Replication Study13 May 2026
- 2026ToxiTwitch: Toward Emote-Aware Hybrid Moderation for Live Streaming Platforms22 Jan 2026
- 2025Remembering Unequally: Global and Disciplinary Bias in LLM Reconstruction of Scholarly Coauthor Lists1 Nov 2025
- 2025Large Language Model Sourcing: A Survey11 Oct 2025
- 2025Toxicity in Online Platforms and AI Systems: A Survey of Needs, Challenges, Mitigations, and Future Directions29 Sep 2025
- 2025Stated Preference for Interaction and Continued Engagement (SPICE): Evaluating an LLM's Willingness to Re-engage in Conversation10 Sep 2025
- 2024PalmBench: A Comprehensive Benchmark of Compressed Large Language Models on Mobile Platforms5 Oct 2024
- 2024DocNet: Semantic Structure in Inductive Bias Detection Models16 Jun 2024
Similar, not cited
Close in wording, no citation either way
- 2024RTP-LX: Can LLMs Evaluate Toxicity in Multilingual Scenarios?
- 2026Do Prompts Guarantee Safety? Mitigating Toxicity from LLM Generations through Subspace Intervention
- 2026A Survey of Toxicity Detection and Mitigation Strategies for Multilingual Language Models
- 2025Rethinking Toxicity Evaluation in Large Language Models: A Multi-Label Perspective
- 2025Something Just Like TRuST : Toxicity Recognition of Span and Target
- 2025<think> So let's replace this phrase with insult... </think> Lessons learned from generation of toxic texts with LLMs
- 2024From One to Many: Expanding the Scope of Toxicity Mitigation in Language Models
- 2025Aligned Probing: Relating Toxic Behavior and Model Internals