FLIN: A Flexible Natural Language Interface for Web Navigation
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Abstract (arXiv)
AI assistants can now carry out tasks for users by directly interacting with website UIs. Current semantic parsing and slot-filling techniques cannot flexibly adapt to many different websites without being constantly re-trained. We propose FLIN, a natural language interface for web navigation that maps user commands to concept-level actions (rather than low-level UI actions), thus being able to flexibly adapt to different websites and handle their transient nature. We frame this as a ranking problem: given a user command and a webpage, FLIN learns to score the most relevant navigation instruction (involving action and parameter values). To train and evaluate FLIN, we collect a dataset using nine popular websites from three domains. Our results show that FLIN was able to adapt to new websites in a given domain.
Key facts. Cited by 18 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 24 Oct 2020.
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Citing papers per year: 2022: 2; 2023: 4; 2024: 6; 2025: 3; 2026: 3.
18 papers.
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- 2022WebShop: Towards Scalable Real-World Web Interaction with Grounded Language Agentscited by 1,197
- 2024GPT-4V(ision) is a Generalist Web Agent, if Groundedcited by 547
- 2023A Real-World WebAgent with Planning, Long Context Understanding, and Program Synthesiscited by 350
- 2024Large Language Model-Brained GUI Agents: A Surveycited by 160
- 2023Multimodal Web Navigation with Instruction-Finetuned Foundation Modelscited by 159
- 2022META-GUI: Towards Multi-modal Conversational Agents on Mobile GUIcited by 81
- 2024On the Multi-turn Instruction Following for Conversational Web Agentscited by 42
- 2025RiOSWorld: Benchmarking the Risk of Multimodal Computer-Use Agentscited by 34
- 2023WebVLN: Vision-and-Language Navigation on Websitescited by 19
- 2023Lexi: Self-Supervised Learning of the UI Languagecited by 10
- 2024NaviQAte: Functionality-Guided Web Application Navigationcited by 9
- 2024Steward: Natural Language Web Automationcited by 4
6 more
- 2025V2P: Visual Attention Calibration for GUI Grounding via Background Suppression and Center Peakingcited by 4
- 2024PAFFA: Premeditated Actions For Fast Agentscited by 1
- 2025Detecting Pipeline Failures through Fine-Grained Analysis of Web Agentscited by 0
- 2026V2P: Visual Attention Calibration for GUI Grounding via Background Suppression and Center Peakingcited by 0
- 2026StepGuard: Guarding Web Navigation via Single-Step Calibrationcited by 0
- 2026Act2Intention: A Benchmark For Developing Active Mobile Agents Through Inferring User Intention from GUI Actionscited by 0
- 2026Act2Intention: A Benchmark For Developing Active Mobile Agents Through Inferring User Intention from GUI Actions14 Aug 2026
- 2026StepGuard: Guarding Web Navigation via Single-Step Calibration16 Jun 2026
- 2026V2P: Visual Attention Calibration for GUI Grounding via Background Suppression and Center Peaking11 Jan 2026
- 2025Detecting Pipeline Failures through Fine-Grained Analysis of Web Agents17 Sep 2025
- 2025V2P: Visual Attention Calibration for GUI Grounding via Background Suppression and Center Peaking19 Aug 2025
- 2025RiOSWorld: Benchmarking the Risk of Multimodal Computer-Use Agents31 May 2025
- 2024PAFFA: Premeditated Actions For Fast Agents10 Dec 2024
- 2024Large Language Model-Brained GUI Agents: A Survey27 Nov 2024
- 2024Steward: Natural Language Web Automation23 Sep 2024
- 2024NaviQAte: Functionality-Guided Web Application Navigation16 Sep 2024
- 2024On the Multi-turn Instruction Following for Conversational Web Agents23 Feb 2024
- 2024GPT-4V(ision) is a Generalist Web Agent, if Grounded3 Jan 2024
6 more
- 2023WebVLN: Vision-and-Language Navigation on Websites25 Dec 2023
- 2023A Real-World WebAgent with Planning, Long Context Understanding, and Program Synthesis24 Jul 2023
- 2023Multimodal Web Navigation with Instruction-Finetuned Foundation Models19 May 2023
- 2023Lexi: Self-Supervised Learning of the UI Language23 Jan 2023
- 2022WebShop: Towards Scalable Real-World Web Interaction with Grounded Language Agents4 Jul 2022
- 2022META-GUI: Towards Multi-modal Conversational Agents on Mobile GUI23 May 2022
- 2022WebShop: Towards Scalable Real-World Web Interaction with Grounded Language Agentscited by 1,197
- 2024Large Language Model-Brained GUI Agents: A Surveycited by 160
- 2024On the Multi-turn Instruction Following for Conversational Web Agentscited by 42
- 2024PAFFA: Premeditated Actions For Fast Agentscited by 1
- 2025Detecting Pipeline Failures through Fine-Grained Analysis of Web Agentscited by 0
- 2026Act2Intention: A Benchmark For Developing Active Mobile Agents Through Inferring User Intention from GUI Actionscited by 0
- 2026Act2Intention: A Benchmark For Developing Active Mobile Agents Through Inferring User Intention from GUI Actions14 Aug 2026
- 2025Detecting Pipeline Failures through Fine-Grained Analysis of Web Agents17 Sep 2025
- 2024PAFFA: Premeditated Actions For Fast Agents10 Dec 2024
- 2024Large Language Model-Brained GUI Agents: A Survey27 Nov 2024
- 2024On the Multi-turn Instruction Following for Conversational Web Agents23 Feb 2024
- 2022WebShop: Towards Scalable Real-World Web Interaction with Grounded Language Agents4 Jul 2022
- 2024GPT-4V(ision) is a Generalist Web Agent, if Groundedcited by 547
- 2025RiOSWorld: Benchmarking the Risk of Multimodal Computer-Use Agentscited by 34
- 2023A Real-World WebAgent with Planning, Long Context Understanding, and Program Synthesiscited by 350
- 2023Multimodal Web Navigation with Instruction-Finetuned Foundation Modelscited by 159
- 2022META-GUI: Towards Multi-modal Conversational Agents on Mobile GUIcited by 81
- 2023WebVLN: Vision-and-Language Navigation on Websitescited by 19
- 2023Lexi: Self-Supervised Learning of the UI Languagecited by 10
- 2024NaviQAte: Functionality-Guided Web Application Navigationcited by 9
- 2024Steward: Natural Language Web Automationcited by 4
- 2025V2P: Visual Attention Calibration for GUI Grounding via Background Suppression and Center Peakingcited by 4
- 2026V2P: Visual Attention Calibration for GUI Grounding via Background Suppression and Center Peakingcited by 0
- 2026StepGuard: Guarding Web Navigation via Single-Step Calibrationcited by 0
- 2026StepGuard: Guarding Web Navigation via Single-Step Calibration16 Jun 2026
- 2026V2P: Visual Attention Calibration for GUI Grounding via Background Suppression and Center Peaking11 Jan 2026
- 2025V2P: Visual Attention Calibration for GUI Grounding via Background Suppression and Center Peaking19 Aug 2025
- 2024Steward: Natural Language Web Automation23 Sep 2024
- 2024NaviQAte: Functionality-Guided Web Application Navigation16 Sep 2024
- 2023WebVLN: Vision-and-Language Navigation on Websites25 Dec 2023
- 2023A Real-World WebAgent with Planning, Long Context Understanding, and Program Synthesis24 Jul 2023
- 2023Multimodal Web Navigation with Instruction-Finetuned Foundation Models19 May 2023
- 2023Lexi: Self-Supervised Learning of the UI Language23 Jan 2023
- 2022META-GUI: Towards Multi-modal Conversational Agents on Mobile GUI23 May 2022