When AUC 0.998 Is Not Enough: A Candidate Evaluation Protocol for Hidden-State Probes of Indirect Prompt Injection in Multimodal Computer-Use Agents
On the map: LLM agents and tool use → Agent threats, guardrails and governance
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Abstract (arXiv)
Hidden-state probing -- a linear classifier on a frozen vision-language model's internal activations -- has emerged as an attractive evaluation tool for flagging indirect prompt injection (IPI) in multimodal computer-use agents before the agent emits a corrupted action. We argue, on a single-backbone cautionary case study (Qwen2.5-VL-7B on Mind2Web, teacher-forced replay), that a high probing AUC on a clean-vs-attack split is not, on its own, evidence of malicious-content detection. Two post-hoc diagnostics -- a paired-construction scalar baseline on text-side injections, and same-step nuisance-matched visual controls on the overlay surface -- do not license an unqualified malicious-content interpretation of the headline while leaving room for partly-semantic readings. We package the diagnostics as a candidate control set with reporting heuristics for what a high clean-vs-attack AUC does and does not license. Labels are injection-surface-present, not attack success; generalisation beyond this backbone and benchmark is a conjecture.
Key facts. Cited by 7 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). Placed in Agent threats, guardrails and governance, one of 16 directions in LLM agents and tool use. Builds on 25 of its 55 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 22 Jun 2026.
Builds on
25 of 55 references.
Closest ancestors · 3
Same direction, newest first
- 2026ShieldNet: Network-Level Guardrails against Emerging Supply-Chain Injections in Agentic Systems6 Apr
- 2026SOK: A Taxonomy of Attack Vectors and Defense Strategies for Agentic Supply Chain Runtime23 Feb
- 2025OS-Sentinel: Towards Safety-Enhanced Mobile GUI Agents via Hybrid Validation in Realistic Workflows28 Oct
Other references · 22
- 2025Qwen2.5-VL Technical Reportcited by 5,587
- 2016Making the V in VQA Matter: Elevating the Role of Image Understanding in Visual Question Answeringcited by 2,516
- 2023Representation Engineering: A Top-Down Approach to AI Transparencycited by 1,336
- 2023Mind2Web: Towards a Generalist Agent for the Webcited by 1,242
- 2024Refusal in Language Models Is Mediated by a Single Directioncited by 1,032
- 2021Probing Classifiers: Promises, Shortcomings, and Advancescited by 876
- 2018Annotation Artifacts in Natural Language Inference Datacited by 671
- 2019Designing and Interpreting Probes with Control Taskscited by 640
- 2017Don't Just Assume; Look and Answer: Overcoming Priors for Visual Question Answeringcited by 339
- 2018SentEval: An Evaluation Toolkit for Universal Sentence Representationscited by 294
- 2018Analysis Methods in Neural Language Processing: A Surveycited by 277
- 2020Information-Theoretic Probing with Minimum Description Lengthcited by 232
10 more
- 2020Information-Theoretic Probing for Linguistic Structurecited by 207
- 2025ICR Probe: Tracking Hidden State Dynamics for Reliable Hallucination Detection in LLMscited by 32
- 2026Does RAG Know When Retrieval Is Wrong? Diagnosing Context Compliance under Knowledge Conflictcited by 15
- 2026SafetyRepro: Configuration-Conditional Rank Instability on Alignment Benchmarkscited by 15
- 2026Relevant Is Not Warranted: Evidence-Force Calibration for Cited RAGcited by 14
- 2025RepIt: Steering Language Models with Concept-Specific Refusal Vectorscited by 12
- 2026Reflect-Guard: Enhancing LLM Safeguards against Adversarial Prompts via Logical Self-Reflectioncited by 12
- 2026Pre-Registering the Detectable Effect: A Paired-MDE Budget for 4-bit Quantization Benchmarks, with a Pilot Auditcited by 8
- 2026CORA: Conformal Risk-Controlled Agents for Safeguarded Mobile GUI Automationcited by 7
- 2026Auditing Reasoning-Trace Memorization Claims after Unlearning with Head-Conditioned Canariescited by 7
Built on by
Citing papers per year: 2026: 7.
7 papers.
- 2026Your Agentic LLMs Secretly Encode Indirect Prompt-Injection Exposure in Hidden Statescited by 7
- 2026Attesting Outputs and Delegation Ancestry in Multi-Agent AI Systemscited by 1
- 2026DriftNet: A Dual-Head Trajectory Transformer for Detecting and Localizing Prompt Injection in LLM Agentscited by 0
- 2026From Probe Scores to Alarm Policies: Operational Validity of Activation Monitors for Language-Model Agentscited by 0
- 2026Revocation Is Not Complete at Receipt: An Executable Outcome Contract for Distributed Agent-Tool Gatewayscited by 0
- 2026Prompt-Injection Probes Learn the Conversation, Not Just the Injectioncited by 0
- 2026Are You Reading the Right Thing? Rethinking Internal Signals for Prompt-Injection Detectioncited by 0
- 2026Are You Reading the Right Thing? Rethinking Internal Signals for Prompt-Injection Detection14 Oct 2026
- 2026Prompt-Injection Probes Learn the Conversation, Not Just the Injection13 Oct 2026
- 2026Revocation Is Not Complete at Receipt: An Executable Outcome Contract for Distributed Agent-Tool Gateways11 Oct 2026
- 2026From Probe Scores to Alarm Policies: Operational Validity of Activation Monitors for Language-Model Agents3 Oct 2026
- 2026DriftNet: A Dual-Head Trajectory Transformer for Detecting and Localizing Prompt Injection in LLM Agents9 Sep 2026
- 2026Attesting Outputs and Delegation Ancestry in Multi-Agent AI Systems31 Aug 2026
- 2026Your Agentic LLMs Secretly Encode Indirect Prompt-Injection Exposure in Hidden States1 Aug 2026
Similar, not cited
Close in wording, no citation either way
- 2026Prompted to Discriminate: Generalizing Malicious-Input Probes in the Wild
- 2026Silent Failures in Agentic Security Evaluation: A Validated Harness for Tool-Call Mediation Under Indirect Prompt Injection
- 2026ICON: Indirect Prompt Injection Defense for Agents based on Inference-Time Correction
- 2026An Experimental Evaluation of Multimodal Prompt Injection Attacks on Agentic AI Frameworks
- 2025WAInjectBench: Benchmarking Prompt Injection Detections for Web Agents
- 2026Rethinking Indirect Prompt Injection as a Test-Time Search Problem
- 2026The Anatomy of a Prompt Injection: A Component Model for Structured Analysis
- 2026AgentWatcher: A Rule-based Prompt Injection Monitor