Can Transformer Models Measure Coherence In Text? Re-Thinking the Shuffle Test
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Abstract (arXiv)
The Shuffle Test is the most common task to evaluate whether NLP models can measure coherence in text. Most recent work uses direct supervision on the task; we show that by simply finetuning a RoBERTa model, we can achieve a near perfect accuracy of 97.8%, a state-of-the-art. We argue that this outstanding performance is unlikely to lead to a good model of text coherence, and suggest that the Shuffle Test should be approached in a Zero-Shot setting: models should be evaluated without being trained on the task itself. We evaluate common models in this setting, such as Generative and Bi-directional Transformers, and find that larger architectures achieve high-performance out-of-the-box. Finally, we suggest the k-Block Shuffle Test, a modification of the original by increasing the size of blocks shuffled. Even though human reader performance remains high (around 95% accuracy), model performance drops from 94% to 78% as block size increases, creating a conceptually simple challenge to benchmark NLP models. Code available: https://github.com/tingofurro/shuffle_test/
Key facts. Cited by 17 papers in the map (data through 13 Oct 2026). Builds on 14 of its 26 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 7 Jul 2021.
Builds on
14 of 26 references.
References · 14
- 2018BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understandingcited by 40,304
- 2020Language Models are Few-Shot Learnerscited by 32,320
- 2019RoBERTa: A Robustly Optimized BERT Pretraining Approachcited by 13,322
- 2020Longformer: The Long-Document Transformercited by 3,393
- 2018Deep contextualized word representationscited by 2,286
- 2020Big Bird: Transformers for Longer Sequencescited by 1,681
- 2020Reformer: The Efficient Transformercited by 1,662
- 2019PEGASUS: Pre-training with Extracted Gap-sentences for Abstractive Summarizationcited by 1,100
- 2017A Deep Reinforced Model for Abstractive Summarizationcited by 364
- 2019BillSum: A Corpus for Automatic Summarization of US Legislationcited by 117
- 2018Abstractive Summarization of Reddit Posts with Multi-level Memory Networkscited by 102
- 2019A Unified Neural Coherence Modelcited by 19
2 more
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Citing papers per year: 2022: 5; 2023: 7; 2024: 2; 2025: 3.
17 papers.
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- 2023HelpSteer: Multi-attribute Helpfulness Dataset for SteerLMcited by 141
- 2022DiscoScore: Evaluating Text Generation with BERT and Discourse Coherencecited by 36
- 2023In-context Learning as Maintaining Coherency: A Study of On-the-fly Machine Translation Using Large Language Modelscited by 10
- 2024Unlocking Structure Measuring: Introducing PDD, an Automatic Metric for Positional Discourse Coherencecited by 7
- 2024Creativity in AI: Progresses and Challengescited by 7
- 2023Combat AI With AI: Counteract Machine-Generated Fake Restaurant Reviews on Social Mediacited by 5
- 2022How to Find Strong Summary Coherence Measures? A Toolbox and a Comparative Study for Summary Coherence Measure Evaluationcited by 4
- 2023A Novel Computational and Modeling Foundation for Automatic Coherence Assessmentcited by 4
- 2023A Digital Language Coherence Marker for Monitoring Dementiacited by 4
- 2023BBScore: A Brownian Bridge Based Metric for Assessing Text Coherencecited by 4
- 2022GisPy: A Tool for Measuring Gist Inference Score in Textcited by 2
- 2025Joint Modeling of Entities and Discourse Relations for Coherence Assessmentcited by 2
5 more
- 2022Imagined versus Remembered Stories: Quantifying Differences in Narrative Flowcited by 1
- 2022An Application of Pseudo-Log-Likelihoods to Natural Language Scoringcited by 1
- 2023Enhancing Coherence of Extractive Summarization with Multitask Learningcited by 1
- 2025Disambiguation of Emotion Annotations by Contextualizing Events in Plausible Narrativescited by 0
- 2025On Non-interactive Evaluation of Animal Communication Translatorscited by 0
- 2025On Non-interactive Evaluation of Animal Communication Translators17 Oct 2025
- 2025Joint Modeling of Entities and Discourse Relations for Coherence Assessment4 Sep 2025
- 2025Disambiguation of Emotion Annotations by Contextualizing Events in Plausible Narratives13 Aug 2025
- 2024Creativity in AI: Progresses and Challenges22 Oct 2024
- 2024Unlocking Structure Measuring: Introducing PDD, an Automatic Metric for Positional Discourse Coherence15 Feb 2024
- 2023BBScore: A Brownian Bridge Based Metric for Assessing Text Coherence28 Dec 2023
- 2023HelpSteer: Multi-attribute Helpfulness Dataset for SteerLM16 Nov 2023
- 2023A Digital Language Coherence Marker for Monitoring Dementia14 Oct 2023
- 2023A Novel Computational and Modeling Foundation for Automatic Coherence Assessment1 Oct 2023
- 2023Enhancing Coherence of Extractive Summarization with Multitask Learning22 May 2023
- 2023In-context Learning as Maintaining Coherency: A Study of On-the-fly Machine Translation Using Large Language Models5 May 2023
- 2023Combat AI With AI: Counteract Machine-Generated Fake Restaurant Reviews on Social Media10 Feb 2023
5 more
- 2022How to Find Strong Summary Coherence Measures? A Toolbox and a Comparative Study for Summary Coherence Measure Evaluation14 Sep 2022
- 2022GisPy: A Tool for Measuring Gist Inference Score in Text25 May 2022
- 2022DiscoScore: Evaluating Text Generation with BERT and Discourse Coherence26 Jan 2022
- 2022An Application of Pseudo-Log-Likelihoods to Natural Language Scoring23 Jan 2022
- 2022Imagined versus Remembered Stories: Quantifying Differences in Narrative Flow7 Jan 2022
- 2023HelpSteer: Multi-attribute Helpfulness Dataset for SteerLMcited by 141
- 2022DiscoScore: Evaluating Text Generation with BERT and Discourse Coherencecited by 36
- 2023In-context Learning as Maintaining Coherency: A Study of On-the-fly Machine Translation Using Large Language Modelscited by 10
- 2024Unlocking Structure Measuring: Introducing PDD, an Automatic Metric for Positional Discourse Coherencecited by 7
- 2024Creativity in AI: Progresses and Challengescited by 7
- 2023Combat AI With AI: Counteract Machine-Generated Fake Restaurant Reviews on Social Mediacited by 5
- 2022How to Find Strong Summary Coherence Measures? A Toolbox and a Comparative Study for Summary Coherence Measure Evaluationcited by 4
- 2023A Novel Computational and Modeling Foundation for Automatic Coherence Assessmentcited by 4
- 2023A Digital Language Coherence Marker for Monitoring Dementiacited by 4
- 2023BBScore: A Brownian Bridge Based Metric for Assessing Text Coherencecited by 4
- 2022GisPy: A Tool for Measuring Gist Inference Score in Textcited by 2
- 2025Joint Modeling of Entities and Discourse Relations for Coherence Assessmentcited by 2
12 most cited of 17 All 17 (JSON)
- 2025On Non-interactive Evaluation of Animal Communication Translators17 Oct 2025
- 2025Joint Modeling of Entities and Discourse Relations for Coherence Assessment4 Sep 2025
- 2025Disambiguation of Emotion Annotations by Contextualizing Events in Plausible Narratives13 Aug 2025
- 2024Creativity in AI: Progresses and Challenges22 Oct 2024
- 2024Unlocking Structure Measuring: Introducing PDD, an Automatic Metric for Positional Discourse Coherence15 Feb 2024
- 2023BBScore: A Brownian Bridge Based Metric for Assessing Text Coherence28 Dec 2023
- 2023HelpSteer: Multi-attribute Helpfulness Dataset for SteerLM16 Nov 2023
- 2023A Digital Language Coherence Marker for Monitoring Dementia14 Oct 2023
- 2023A Novel Computational and Modeling Foundation for Automatic Coherence Assessment1 Oct 2023
- 2023Enhancing Coherence of Extractive Summarization with Multitask Learning22 May 2023
- 2023In-context Learning as Maintaining Coherency: A Study of On-the-fly Machine Translation Using Large Language Models5 May 2023
- 2023Combat AI With AI: Counteract Machine-Generated Fake Restaurant Reviews on Social Media10 Feb 2023
12 newest of 17 All 17 (JSON)