Adversarial Model Extraction on Graph Neural Networks
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Abstract (arXiv)
Along with the advent of deep neural networks came various methods of exploitation, such as fooling the classifier or contaminating its training data. Another such attack is known as model extraction, where provided API access to some black box neural network, the adversary extracts the underlying model. This is done by querying the model in such a way that the underlying neural network provides enough information to the adversary to be reconstructed. While several works have achieved impressive results with neural network extraction in the propositional domain, this problem has not yet been considered over the relational domain, where data samples are no longer considered to be independent and identically distributed (iid). Graph Neural Networks (GNNs) are a popular deep learning framework to perform machine learning tasks over relational data. In this work, we formalize an instance of GNN extraction, present a solution with preliminary results, and discuss our assumptions and future directions.
Key facts. Cited by 23 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 16 Dec 2019.
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Citing papers per year: 2021: 1; 2022: 2; 2023: 4; 2024: 5; 2025: 6; 2026: 5.
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- 2022I Know What You Trained Last Summer: A Survey on Stealing Machine Learning Models and Defencescited by 75
- 2024A Survey of Graph Neural Networks in Real world: Imbalance, Noise, Privacy and OOD Challengescited by 54
- 2021Model Stealing Attacks Against Inductive Graph Neural Networkscited by 50
- 2022SSLGuard: A Watermarking Scheme for Self-supervised Learning Pre-trained Encoderscited by 45
- 2023A Survey on Privacy in Graph Neural Networks: Attacks, Preservation, and Applicationscited by 22
- 2023GrOVe: Ownership Verification of Graph Neural Networks using Embeddingscited by 16
- 2024Safety in Graph Machine Learning: Threats and Safeguardscited by 11
- 2025CEGA: A Cost-Effective Approach for Graph-Based Model Extraction and Acquisitioncited by 10
- 2026GraphIP-Bench: How Hard Is It to Steal a Graph Neural Network, and Can We Stop It?cited by 4
- 2024Link Stealing Attacks Against Inductive Graph Neural Networkscited by 3
- 2024GENIE: Watermarking Graph Neural Networks for Link Predictioncited by 3
- 2025Intellectual Property in Graph-Based Machine Learning as a Service: Attacks and Defensescited by 3
11 more
- 2026CITED: A Decision Boundary-Aware Signature for GNNs Towards Model Extraction Defensecited by 3
- 2025ADAGE: Active Defenses Against GNN Extractioncited by 2
- 2023GNNBleed: Inference Attacks to Unveil Private Edges in Graphs with Realistic Access to GNN Modelscited by 1
- 2025WGLE:Backdoor-free and Multi-bit Black-box Watermarking for Graph Neural Networkscited by 1
- 2025A Systematic Study of Model Extraction Attacks on Graph Foundation Modelscited by 1
- 2023MEAOD: Model Extraction Attack against Object Detectorscited by 0
- 2024Stealing the Invisible: Unveiling Pre-Trained CNN Models through Adversarial Examples and Timing Side-Channelscited by 0
- 2025I Stolenly Swear That I Am Up to (No) Good: Design and Evaluation of Model Stealing Attackscited by 0
- 2026COPYCOP: Ownership Verification for Graph Neural Networkscited by 0
- 2026Defending against Model Extraction for GNNs with Model Reprogrammingcited by 0
- 2026Dagger: Decoupling-based Model Stealing Attack against Graph Neural Networkscited by 0
- 2026Dagger: Decoupling-based Model Stealing Attack against Graph Neural Networks29 Sep 2026
- 2026Defending against Model Extraction for GNNs with Model Reprogramming11 Aug 2026
- 2026GraphIP-Bench: How Hard Is It to Steal a Graph Neural Network, and Can We Stop It?12 May 2026
- 2026COPYCOP: Ownership Verification for Graph Neural Networks6 May 2026
- 2026CITED: A Decision Boundary-Aware Signature for GNNs Towards Model Extraction Defense23 Feb 2026
- 2025A Systematic Study of Model Extraction Attacks on Graph Foundation Models14 Nov 2025
- 2025I Stolenly Swear That I Am Up to (No) Good: Design and Evaluation of Model Stealing Attacks29 Aug 2025
- 2025Intellectual Property in Graph-Based Machine Learning as a Service: Attacks and Defenses27 Aug 2025
- 2025CEGA: A Cost-Effective Approach for Graph-Based Model Extraction and Acquisition21 Jun 2025
- 2025WGLE:Backdoor-free and Multi-bit Black-box Watermarking for Graph Neural Networks10 Jun 2025
- 2025ADAGE: Active Defenses Against GNN Extraction27 Feb 2025
- 2024GENIE: Watermarking Graph Neural Networks for Link Prediction7 Jun 2024
11 more
- 2024Safety in Graph Machine Learning: Threats and Safeguards17 May 2024
- 2024Link Stealing Attacks Against Inductive Graph Neural Networks9 May 2024
- 2024A Survey of Graph Neural Networks in Real world: Imbalance, Noise, Privacy and OOD Challenges7 Mar 2024
- 2024Stealing the Invisible: Unveiling Pre-Trained CNN Models through Adversarial Examples and Timing Side-Channels19 Feb 2024
- 2023MEAOD: Model Extraction Attack against Object Detectors22 Dec 2023
- 2023GNNBleed: Inference Attacks to Unveil Private Edges in Graphs with Realistic Access to GNN Models3 Nov 2023
- 2023A Survey on Privacy in Graph Neural Networks: Attacks, Preservation, and Applications31 Aug 2023
- 2023GrOVe: Ownership Verification of Graph Neural Networks using Embeddings17 Apr 2023
- 2022I Know What You Trained Last Summer: A Survey on Stealing Machine Learning Models and Defences16 Jun 2022
- 2022SSLGuard: A Watermarking Scheme for Self-supervised Learning Pre-trained Encoders27 Jan 2022
- 2021Model Stealing Attacks Against Inductive Graph Neural Networks15 Dec 2021
- 2022I Know What You Trained Last Summer: A Survey on Stealing Machine Learning Models and Defencescited by 75
- 2024A Survey of Graph Neural Networks in Real world: Imbalance, Noise, Privacy and OOD Challengescited by 54
- 2021Model Stealing Attacks Against Inductive Graph Neural Networkscited by 50
- 2022SSLGuard: A Watermarking Scheme for Self-supervised Learning Pre-trained Encoderscited by 45
- 2023A Survey on Privacy in Graph Neural Networks: Attacks, Preservation, and Applicationscited by 22
- 2023GrOVe: Ownership Verification of Graph Neural Networks using Embeddingscited by 16
- 2024Safety in Graph Machine Learning: Threats and Safeguardscited by 11
- 2025CEGA: A Cost-Effective Approach for Graph-Based Model Extraction and Acquisitioncited by 10
- 2026GraphIP-Bench: How Hard Is It to Steal a Graph Neural Network, and Can We Stop It?cited by 4
- 2024Link Stealing Attacks Against Inductive Graph Neural Networkscited by 3
- 2024GENIE: Watermarking Graph Neural Networks for Link Predictioncited by 3
- 2025Intellectual Property in Graph-Based Machine Learning as a Service: Attacks and Defensescited by 3
12 most cited of 23 All 23 (JSON)
- 2026Dagger: Decoupling-based Model Stealing Attack against Graph Neural Networks29 Sep 2026
- 2026Defending against Model Extraction for GNNs with Model Reprogramming11 Aug 2026
- 2026GraphIP-Bench: How Hard Is It to Steal a Graph Neural Network, and Can We Stop It?12 May 2026
- 2026COPYCOP: Ownership Verification for Graph Neural Networks6 May 2026
- 2026CITED: A Decision Boundary-Aware Signature for GNNs Towards Model Extraction Defense23 Feb 2026
- 2025A Systematic Study of Model Extraction Attacks on Graph Foundation Models14 Nov 2025
- 2025I Stolenly Swear That I Am Up to (No) Good: Design and Evaluation of Model Stealing Attacks29 Aug 2025
- 2025Intellectual Property in Graph-Based Machine Learning as a Service: Attacks and Defenses27 Aug 2025
- 2025CEGA: A Cost-Effective Approach for Graph-Based Model Extraction and Acquisition21 Jun 2025
- 2025WGLE:Backdoor-free and Multi-bit Black-box Watermarking for Graph Neural Networks10 Jun 2025
- 2025ADAGE: Active Defenses Against GNN Extraction27 Feb 2025
- 2024GENIE: Watermarking Graph Neural Networks for Link Prediction7 Jun 2024
12 newest of 23 All 23 (JSON)