Evaluation of Sentence Representations in Polish
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Abstract (arXiv)
Methods for learning sentence representations have been actively developed in recent years. However, the lack of pre-trained models and datasets annotated at the sentence level has been a problem for low-resource languages such as Polish which led to less interest in applying these methods to language-specific tasks. In this study, we introduce two new Polish datasets for evaluating sentence embeddings and provide a comprehensive evaluation of eight sentence representation methods including Polish and multilingual models. We consider classic word embedding models, recently developed contextual embeddings and multilingual sentence encoders, showing strengths and weaknesses of specific approaches. We also examine different methods of aggregating word vectors into a single sentence vector.
Key facts. Cited by 18 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 25 Oct 2019.
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Citing papers per year: 2021: 1; 2022: 1; 2023: 1; 2024: 5; 2025: 7; 2026: 3.
18 papers.
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- 2024PL-MTEB: Polish Massive Text Embedding Benchmarkcited by 19
- 2024Bielik 7B v0.1: A Polish Language Model -- Development, Insights, and Evaluationcited by 15
- 2022Training Effective Neural Sentence Encoders from Automatically Mined Paraphrasescited by 11
- 2024GPTs Are Multilingual Annotators for Sequence Generation Taskscited by 11
- 2024Length-Induced Embedding Collapse in PLM-based Modelscited by 9
- 2025mSTEB: Massively Multilingual Evaluation of LLMs on Speech and Text Taskscited by 7
- 2025Evaluating Polish linguistic and cultural competency in large language modelscited by 6
- 2025Bielik 11B v3: Multilingual Large Language Model for European Languagescited by 6
- 2025Bielik v3 Small: Technical Reportcited by 5
- 2024Modular Sentence Encoders: Separating Language Specialization from Cross-Lingual Alignmentcited by 2
- 2025Bielik 11B v2 Technical Reportcited by 2
- 2021Detection of Criminal Texts for the Polish State Border Guardcited by 1
6 more
- 2023Improving Domain-Specific Retrieval by NLI Fine-Tuningcited by 1
- 2025The PLLuM Instruction Corpuscited by 1
- 2026Long-Context Encoder Models for Polish Language Understandingcited by 1
- 2026Advancing Polish Language Modeling through Tokenizer Optimization in the Bielik v3 7B and 11B Seriescited by 1
- 2025Two Stage Context Learning with Large Language Models for Multimodal Stance Detection on Climate Changecited by 0
- 2026Polish ModernBERT: The Long and Short of Polish Language Understandingcited by 0
- 2026Polish ModernBERT: The Long and Short of Polish Language Understanding1 Sep 2026
- 2026Advancing Polish Language Modeling through Tokenizer Optimization in the Bielik v3 7B and 11B Series12 Apr 2026
- 2026Long-Context Encoder Models for Polish Language Understanding12 Mar 2026
- 2025Bielik 11B v3: Multilingual Large Language Model for European Languages30 Dec 2025
- 2025The PLLuM Instruction Corpus21 Nov 2025
- 2025Two Stage Context Learning with Large Language Models for Multimodal Stance Detection on Climate Change9 Sep 2025
- 2025mSTEB: Massively Multilingual Evaluation of LLMs on Speech and Text Tasks10 Jun 2025
- 2025Bielik v3 Small: Technical Report5 May 2025
- 2025Bielik 11B v2 Technical Report5 May 2025
- 2025Evaluating Polish linguistic and cultural competency in large language models2 Mar 2025
- 2024Length-Induced Embedding Collapse in PLM-based Models31 Oct 2024
- 2024Bielik 7B v0.1: A Polish Language Model -- Development, Insights, and Evaluation24 Oct 2024
6 more
- 2024Modular Sentence Encoders: Separating Language Specialization from Cross-Lingual Alignment20 Jul 2024
- 2024PL-MTEB: Polish Massive Text Embedding Benchmark16 May 2024
- 2024GPTs Are Multilingual Annotators for Sequence Generation Tasks8 Feb 2024
- 2023Improving Domain-Specific Retrieval by NLI Fine-Tuning6 Aug 2023
- 2022Training Effective Neural Sentence Encoders from Automatically Mined Paraphrases26 Jul 2022
- 2021Detection of Criminal Texts for the Polish State Border Guard24 Aug 2021
- 2024PL-MTEB: Polish Massive Text Embedding Benchmarkcited by 19
- 2024Bielik 7B v0.1: A Polish Language Model -- Development, Insights, and Evaluationcited by 15
- 2022Training Effective Neural Sentence Encoders from Automatically Mined Paraphrasescited by 11
- 2024GPTs Are Multilingual Annotators for Sequence Generation Taskscited by 11
- 2024Length-Induced Embedding Collapse in PLM-based Modelscited by 9
- 2025mSTEB: Massively Multilingual Evaluation of LLMs on Speech and Text Taskscited by 7
- 2025Evaluating Polish linguistic and cultural competency in large language modelscited by 6
- 2025Bielik 11B v3: Multilingual Large Language Model for European Languagescited by 6
- 2025Bielik v3 Small: Technical Reportcited by 5
- 2024Modular Sentence Encoders: Separating Language Specialization from Cross-Lingual Alignmentcited by 2
- 2025Bielik 11B v2 Technical Reportcited by 2
- 2021Detection of Criminal Texts for the Polish State Border Guardcited by 1
12 most cited of 18 All 18 (JSON)
- 2026Polish ModernBERT: The Long and Short of Polish Language Understanding1 Sep 2026
- 2026Advancing Polish Language Modeling through Tokenizer Optimization in the Bielik v3 7B and 11B Series12 Apr 2026
- 2026Long-Context Encoder Models for Polish Language Understanding12 Mar 2026
- 2025Bielik 11B v3: Multilingual Large Language Model for European Languages30 Dec 2025
- 2025The PLLuM Instruction Corpus21 Nov 2025
- 2025Two Stage Context Learning with Large Language Models for Multimodal Stance Detection on Climate Change9 Sep 2025
- 2025mSTEB: Massively Multilingual Evaluation of LLMs on Speech and Text Tasks10 Jun 2025
- 2025Bielik v3 Small: Technical Report5 May 2025
- 2025Bielik 11B v2 Technical Report5 May 2025
- 2025Evaluating Polish linguistic and cultural competency in large language models2 Mar 2025
- 2024Length-Induced Embedding Collapse in PLM-based Models31 Oct 2024
- 2024Bielik 7B v0.1: A Polish Language Model -- Development, Insights, and Evaluation24 Oct 2024
12 newest of 18 All 18 (JSON)