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Evaluation Measures for Hierarchical Classification: a unified view and novel approaches

arXiv 1306.6802 ↗First posted 28 Jun 2013cs.AI cs.LGcited by 46

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Abstract (arXiv)

Hierarchical classification addresses the problem of classifying items into a hierarchy of classes. An important issue in hierarchical classification is the evaluation of different classification algorithms, which is complicated by the hierarchical relations among the classes. Several evaluation measures have been proposed for hierarchical classification using the hierarchy in different ways. This paper studies the problem of evaluation in hierarchical classification by analyzing and abstracting the key components of the existing performance measures. It also proposes two alternative generic views of hierarchical evaluation and introduces two corresponding novel measures. The proposed measures, along with the state-of-the art ones, are empirically tested on three large datasets from the domain of text classification. The empirical results illustrate the undesirable behavior of existing approaches and how the proposed methods overcome most of these methods across a range of cases.

Key facts. Cited by 46 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 28 Jun 2013.

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Citing papers per year: 2021: 10; 2022: 6; 2023: 2; 2024: 5; 2025: 12; 2026: 11.

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  1. 2024Compositional Entailment Learning for Hyperbolic Vision-Language Modelscited by 72
  2. 2024A Closer Look at Classification Evaluation Metrics and a Critical Reflection of Common Evaluation Practicecited by 26
  3. 2021Overview of BioASQ 2021: The ninth BioASQ challenge on Large-Scale Biomedical Semantic Indexing and Question Answeringcited by 19
  4. 2022Hierarchical classification at multiple operating pointscited by 14
  5. 2021Overview of BioASQ 2020: The eighth BioASQ challenge on Large-Scale Biomedical Semantic Indexing and Question Answeringcited by 13
  6. 2024Can GPT-3.5 Generate and Code Discharge Summaries?cited by 12
  7. 2025Taxonomy-Aware Evaluation of Vision-Language Modelscited by 11
  8. 2021CoPHE: A Count-Preserving Hierarchical Evaluation Metric in Large-Scale Multi-Label Text Classificationcited by 9
  9. 2022A Bayesian Bradley-Terry model to compare multiple ML algorithms on multiple data setscited by 9
  10. 2022Overview of BioASQ 2022: The tenth BioASQ challenge on Large-Scale Biomedical Semantic Indexing and Question Answeringcited by 9
  11. 2024HunFlair2 in a cross-corpus evaluation of biomedical named entity recognition and normalization toolscited by 8
  12. 2022Can Current Explainability Help Provide References in Clinical Notes to Support Humans Annotate Medical Codes?cited by 7
34 more
  1. 2024Revisiting Hierarchical Text Classification: Inference and Metricscited by 7
  2. 2025The LLM Bottleneck: Why Open-Source Vision LLMs Struggle with Hierarchical Visual Recognitioncited by 7
  3. 2025PHyCLIP: ℓ1-Product of Hyperbolic Factors Unifies Hierarchy and Compositionality in Vision-Language Representation Learningcited by 7
  4. 2023Hierarchical confusion matrix for classification performance evaluationcited by 6
  5. 2021On the privacy-utility trade-off in differentially private hierarchical text classificationcited by 4
  6. 2021Embedding Semantic Hierarchy in Discrete Optimal Transport for Risk Minimizationcited by 4
  7. 2021United We Learn Better: Harvesting Learning Improvements From Class Hierarchies Across Taskscited by 3
  8. 2022Exploiting Expert Knowledge for Assigning Firms to Industries: A Novel Deep Learning Methodcited by 3
  9. 2025Leveraging Taxonomy and LLMs for Improved Multimodal Hierarchical Classificationcited by 3
  10. 2026Taxonomy-Aware Representation Alignment for Hierarchical Visual Recognition with Large Multimodal Modelscited by 3
  11. 2025Majority Rules: LLM Ensemble is a Winning Approach for Content Categorizationcited by 2
  12. 2026Measuring Human Value Expression in Social Media Texts: Calibrated LLM Annotation and Encoder Transfercited by 2
  13. 2025Hierarchical Scoring for Machine Learning Classifier Error Impact Evaluationcited by 1
  14. 2025Multilingual Clinical NER for Diseases and Medications Recognition in Cardiology Texts using BERT Embeddingscited by 1
  15. 2026Semi-Supervised Hierarchical Open-Set Classificationcited by 1
  16. 2026Evaluating Open-Source LLMs for Multi-Label ATT&CK Technique Classification on CTI Reportscited by 1
  17. 2026KVpop -- Key-Value Cache Compression with Predictive Online Pruningcited by 1
  18. 2021Affinity-Based Hierarchical Learning of Dependent Concepts for Human Activity Recognitioncited by 0
  19. 2021Coarse- and fine-scale geometric information content of Multiclass Classification and implied Data-driven Intelligencecited by 0
  20. 2021Cleaning and Structuring the Label Space of the iMet Collection 2020cited by 0
  21. 2021Interpretable Self-supervised Multi-task Learning for COVID-19 Information Retrieval and Extractioncited by 0
  22. 2022Semantic Guided Level-Category Hybrid Prediction Network for Hierarchical Image Classificationcited by 0
  23. 2023Hierarchical Multi-Instance Multi-Label Learning for Detecting Propaganda Techniquescited by 0
  24. 2025Enforcing Consistency and Fairness in Multi-level Hierarchical Classification with a Mask-based Output Layercited by 0
  25. 2025Enhancing VICReg: Random-Walk Pairing for Improved Generalization and Better Global Semantics Capturingcited by 0
  26. 2025hYOLO Model: Enhancing Object Classification with Hierarchical Context in YOLOv8cited by 0
  27. 2025Climbing the label tree: Hierarchy-preserving contrastive learning for medical imagingcited by 0
  28. 2025MedPath: Multi-Domain Cross-Vocabulary Hierarchical Paths for Biomedical Entity Linkingcited by 0
  29. 2026Measuring and Aligning Abstraction in Vision-Language Models with Medical Taxonomiescited by 0
  30. 2026Beyond Flat Labels: Level-Restricted Contrastive Learning for Hierarchical Fine-Grained Vision Classificationcited by 0
  31. 2026Learning Taxonomic Trees with Hierarchical Representation Regularization for Large Multimodal Modelscited by 0
  32. 2026Hierarchy-Aware Supervised Uncertainty Estimation for Black-box LLM Taxonomic Reasoningcited by 0
  33. 2026Hierarchical Prompt Learning for Hyperbolic Vision-Language Modelscited by 0
  34. 2026Hyperbolic Multimodal Continual Learning: A Closest-Admissible Solutioncited by 0