Sharp Characterization of Bias in Post-Bandit Inference

Bandit algorithms generate data for downstream inference, but adaptive sampling biases post-bandit sample means. We analyze this bias for stable index algorithms, including UCB1 and its generalizations, and derive sharp leading-order expressions for the sample-mean bias and expected Z-statistic, in bandit experiments of fixed horizon T. Our characterization reveals the algorithmic origin of bias through a key index-function-dependent quantity, which we term effective exploration rate. For example, under UCB1, the effective exploration rate is of order √log T, and the standardized bias of any arm (that is not uniquely optimal) decays at the extremely slow rate 1/√log T. We also show how the choice of the index function affects both regret and bias, which reveals a regret-bias trade-off: more exploratory algorithm reduces bias but increases regret. We further show how bias most severely distorts confidence intervals and hypothesis tests when the tested arm is one of the tied-optimal arms. Our sharp characterization for bias uses a novel empirical fluid approximation of the algorithm's sampling dynamics, which may be of independent interest.