PointsToWood: A deep learning framework for complete canopy leaf-wood segmentation of TLS data across diverse European forests

Point clouds from Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) are an increasingly popular source of data for studying plant structure and function but typically require extensive manual processing to extract ecologically important information. One key task is the accurate semantic segmentation of different plant material within point clouds, particularly wood and leaves, which is required to understand plant productivity, architecture and physiology. Existing automated semantic segmentation methods are primarily developed for single ecosystem types, and whilst they show good accuracy for biomass assessment from the trunk and large branches, often perform less well within the crown. In this study, we demonstrate a new framework that uses a deep learning architecture newly developed from PointNet and pointNEXT for processing 3D point clouds to provide a reliable semantic segmentation of wood and leaf in TLS point clouds from the tree base to branch tips, trained on data from diverse mature European forests. Our model uses meticulously labelled data combined with voxel-based sampling, neighbourhood rescaling, and a novel gated reflectance integration module embedded throughout the feature extraction layers. We evaluate its performance across open datasets from boreal, temperate, Mediterranean and tropical regions, encompassing diverse ecosystem types and sensor characteristics. Our results show consistent outperformance against the most widely used PointNet based approach for leaf/wood segmentation on our high-density TLS dataset collected across diverse mixed forest plots across all major biomes in Europe. We also find consistently strong performance tested on others open data from China, Eastern Cameroon, Germany and Finland, collected using both time-of-flight and phase-shift sensors, showcasing the transferability of our model to a wide range of ecosystems and sensors.