The Art of Embedding Fusion: Optimizing Hate Speech Detection
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Abstract (arXiv)
Hate speech detection is a challenging natural language processing task that requires capturing linguistic and contextual nuances. Pre-trained language models (PLMs) offer rich semantic representations of text that can improve this task. However there is still limited knowledge about ways to effectively combine representations across PLMs and leverage their complementary strengths. In this work, we shed light on various combination techniques for several PLMs and comprehensively analyze their effectiveness. Our findings show that combining embeddings leads to slight improvements but at a high computational cost and the choice of combination has marginal effect on the final outcome. We also make our codebase public at https://github.com/aflah02/The-Art-of-Embedding-Fusion-Optimizing-Hate-Speech-Detection .
Key facts. Cited by 3 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 10 of its 14 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 26 Jun 2023.
Builds on
10 of 14 references.
References · 10
- 2018BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understandingcited by 40,204
- 2019Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networkscited by 9,049
- 2017Automated Hate Speech Detection and the Problem of Offensive Languagecited by 724
- 2023A Comprehensive Survey on Pretrained Foundation Models: A History from BERT to ChatGPTcited by 364
- 2020BERTweet: A pre-trained language model for English Tweetscited by 346
- 2019Predicting the Type and Target of Offensive Posts in Social Mediacited by 268
- 2020Learning from the Worst: Dynamically Generated Datasets to Improve Online Hate Detectioncited by 217
- 2021Latent Hatred: A Benchmark for Understanding Implicit Hate Speechcited by 216
- 2020HateBERT: Retraining BERT for Abusive Language Detection in Englishcited by 206
- 2020Multiple Word Embeddings for Increased Diversity of Representationcited by 4
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Citing papers per year: 2024: 2; 2025: 1.
3 papers.
- 2025Uncertainty-driven Embedding Convolution28 Jul 2025
- 2024Enhancing Authorship Attribution through Embedding Fusion: A Novel Approach with Masked and Encoder-Decoder Language Models1 Nov 2024
- 2024InterLUDE: Interactions between Labeled and Unlabeled Data to Enhance Semi-Supervised Learning15 Mar 2024