Detecting Offensive Language in Tweets Using Deep Learning
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Abstract (arXiv)
This paper addresses the important problem of discerning hateful content in social media. We propose a detection scheme that is an ensemble of Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) classifiers, and it incorporates various features associated with user-related information, such as the users' tendency towards racism or sexism. These data are fed as input to the above classifiers along with the word frequency vectors derived from the textual content. Our approach has been evaluated on a publicly available corpus of 16k tweets, and the results demonstrate its effectiveness in comparison to existing state of the art solutions. More specifically, our scheme can successfully distinguish racism and sexism messages from normal text, and achieve higher classification quality than current state-of-the-art algorithms.
Key facts. Cited by 23 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 13 Jan 2018.
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Citing papers per year: 2021: 6; 2022: 7; 2023: 2; 2024: 7; 2025: 1.
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- 2022Language Generation Models Can Cause Harm: So What Can We Do About It? An Actionable Surveycited by 80
- 2024ToxiCloakCN: Evaluating Robustness of Offensive Language Detection in Chinese with Cloaking Perturbationscited by 30
- 2021A systematic review of Hate Speech automatic detection using Natural Language Processingcited by 26
- 2021Detection of Hate Speech using BERT and Hate Speech Word Embedding with Deep Modelcited by 26
- 2021Deciphering Implicit Hate: Evaluating Automated Detection Algorithms for Multimodal Hatecited by 8
- 2021Hate Speech Detection in Roman Urducited by 8
- 2021Offensive Language Identification in Low-resourced Code-mixed Dravidian languages using Pseudo-labelingcited by 6
- 2024User-Aware Multilingual Abusive Content Detection in Social Mediacited by 6
- 2022T5 for Hate Speech, Augmented Data and Ensemblecited by 5
- 2022The Naughtyformer: A Transformer Understands Offensive Humorcited by 5
- 2023Down the Rabbit Hole: Detecting Online Extremism, Radicalisation, and Politicised Hate Speechcited by 5
- 2024Chinese Offensive Language Detection:Current Status and Future Directionscited by 4
11 more
- 2022Selecting and combining complementary feature representations and classifiers for hate speech detectioncited by 3
- 2024MasonPerplexity at ClimateActivism 2024: Integrating Advanced Ensemble Techniques and Data Augmentation for Climate Activism Stance and Hate Event Identificationcited by 3
- 2022SOLD: Sinhala Offensive Language Datasetcited by 2
- 2022Rethinking Offensive Text Detection as a Multi-Hop Reasoning Problemcited by 1
- 2021AtteSTNet -- An attention and subword tokenization based approach for code-switched text hate speech detectioncited by 0
- 2022Improved two-stage hate speech classification for twitter based on Deep Neural Networkscited by 0
- 2023"Can We Detect Substance Use Disorder?": Knowledge and Time Aware Classification on Social Media from Darkwebcited by 0
- 2024Hate Content Detection via Novel Pre-Processing Sequencing and Ensemble Methodscited by 0
- 2024A Unified Multi-Task Learning Architecture for Hate Detection Leveraging User-Based Informationcited by 0
- 2024Exploration and Evaluation of Bias in Cyberbullying Detection with Machine Learningcited by 0
- 2025The Hidden Language of Harm: Examining the Role of Emojis in Harmful Online Communication and Content Moderationcited by 0
- 2025The Hidden Language of Harm: Examining the Role of Emojis in Harmful Online Communication and Content Moderation31 May 2025
- 2024Exploration and Evaluation of Bias in Cyberbullying Detection with Machine Learning30 Nov 2024
- 2024A Unified Multi-Task Learning Architecture for Hate Detection Leveraging User-Based Information11 Nov 2024
- 2024User-Aware Multilingual Abusive Content Detection in Social Media26 Oct 2024
- 2024Hate Content Detection via Novel Pre-Processing Sequencing and Ensemble Methods8 Sep 2024
- 2024ToxiCloakCN: Evaluating Robustness of Offensive Language Detection in Chinese with Cloaking Perturbations18 Jun 2024
- 2024Chinese Offensive Language Detection:Current Status and Future Directions27 Mar 2024
- 2024MasonPerplexity at ClimateActivism 2024: Integrating Advanced Ensemble Techniques and Data Augmentation for Climate Activism Stance and Hate Event Identification3 Feb 2024
- 2023"Can We Detect Substance Use Disorder?": Knowledge and Time Aware Classification on Social Media from Darkweb20 Apr 2023
- 2023Down the Rabbit Hole: Detecting Online Extremism, Radicalisation, and Politicised Hate Speech27 Jan 2023
- 2022SOLD: Sinhala Offensive Language Dataset1 Dec 2022
- 2022The Naughtyformer: A Transformer Understands Offensive Humor25 Nov 2022
11 more
- 2022Language Generation Models Can Cause Harm: So What Can We Do About It? An Actionable Survey14 Oct 2022
- 2022T5 for Hate Speech, Augmented Data and Ensemble11 Oct 2022
- 2022Improved two-stage hate speech classification for twitter based on Deep Neural Networks8 Jun 2022
- 2022Rethinking Offensive Text Detection as a Multi-Hop Reasoning Problem22 Apr 2022
- 2022Selecting and combining complementary feature representations and classifiers for hate speech detection18 Jan 2022
- 2021AtteSTNet -- An attention and subword tokenization based approach for code-switched text hate speech detection10 Dec 2021
- 2021Detection of Hate Speech using BERT and Hate Speech Word Embedding with Deep Model2 Nov 2021
- 2021Offensive Language Identification in Low-resourced Code-mixed Dravidian languages using Pseudo-labeling27 Aug 2021
- 2021Hate Speech Detection in Roman Urdu5 Aug 2021
- 2021Deciphering Implicit Hate: Evaluating Automated Detection Algorithms for Multimodal Hate10 Jun 2021
- 2021A systematic review of Hate Speech automatic detection using Natural Language Processing22 May 2021
- 2022Language Generation Models Can Cause Harm: So What Can We Do About It? An Actionable Surveycited by 80
- 2024ToxiCloakCN: Evaluating Robustness of Offensive Language Detection in Chinese with Cloaking Perturbationscited by 30
- 2021A systematic review of Hate Speech automatic detection using Natural Language Processingcited by 26
- 2021Detection of Hate Speech using BERT and Hate Speech Word Embedding with Deep Modelcited by 26
- 2021Deciphering Implicit Hate: Evaluating Automated Detection Algorithms for Multimodal Hatecited by 8
- 2021Hate Speech Detection in Roman Urducited by 8
- 2021Offensive Language Identification in Low-resourced Code-mixed Dravidian languages using Pseudo-labelingcited by 6
- 2024User-Aware Multilingual Abusive Content Detection in Social Mediacited by 6
- 2022T5 for Hate Speech, Augmented Data and Ensemblecited by 5
- 2022The Naughtyformer: A Transformer Understands Offensive Humorcited by 5
- 2023Down the Rabbit Hole: Detecting Online Extremism, Radicalisation, and Politicised Hate Speechcited by 5
- 2024Chinese Offensive Language Detection:Current Status and Future Directionscited by 4
12 most cited of 22 All 22 (JSON)
- 2025The Hidden Language of Harm: Examining the Role of Emojis in Harmful Online Communication and Content Moderation31 May 2025
- 2024Exploration and Evaluation of Bias in Cyberbullying Detection with Machine Learning30 Nov 2024
- 2024A Unified Multi-Task Learning Architecture for Hate Detection Leveraging User-Based Information11 Nov 2024
- 2024User-Aware Multilingual Abusive Content Detection in Social Media26 Oct 2024
- 2024Hate Content Detection via Novel Pre-Processing Sequencing and Ensemble Methods8 Sep 2024
- 2024ToxiCloakCN: Evaluating Robustness of Offensive Language Detection in Chinese with Cloaking Perturbations18 Jun 2024
- 2024Chinese Offensive Language Detection:Current Status and Future Directions27 Mar 2024
- 2024MasonPerplexity at ClimateActivism 2024: Integrating Advanced Ensemble Techniques and Data Augmentation for Climate Activism Stance and Hate Event Identification3 Feb 2024
- 2023"Can We Detect Substance Use Disorder?": Knowledge and Time Aware Classification on Social Media from Darkweb20 Apr 2023
- 2023Down the Rabbit Hole: Detecting Online Extremism, Radicalisation, and Politicised Hate Speech27 Jan 2023
- 2022SOLD: Sinhala Offensive Language Dataset1 Dec 2022
- 2022The Naughtyformer: A Transformer Understands Offensive Humor25 Nov 2022
12 newest of 22 All 22 (JSON)