# Universal Byte-Level Encoding: UTF-8/UTF-16 Routing to Reduce Cross-Script Token-Budget Disparities

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.01984 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2610.01984/

## Key facts

- No citing papers in the map yet (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 17 of its 86 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 1 Oct 2026.

## Builds on (most cited first, 17 of 17)

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## Abstract (arXiv)

Byte-level byte-pair encoding (BBPE) tokenizers are attractive for multilingual large language models (LLMs) because they cover all Unicode text. In UTF-8-based BBPE, however, many scripts start from a higher fallback cost than English: when no learned merges can be applied, a multibyte character requires multiple byte-derived symbols. We call this worst-case pre-merge cost the encoding floor. A higher floor can increase token counts and per-request cost and shrink usable context. Changing the text encoding can reduce this gap, but a single global encoding can make already-efficient English spans more expensive in mixed-script text. We propose Universal Byte-Level Encoding (UBE), a dual-alphabet tokenizer that keeps 1-2-byte UTF-8 characters on the UTF-8 path while routing 3-4-byte UTF-8 characters through UTF-16. This lowers the encoding floor for 3-byte Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP) characters in scripts with high token premiums (token counts relative to English) without raising it for already-efficient spans in mixed-script text. UBE changes only the byte representation presented to byte-pair encoding (BPE); the merge rule remains standard, and exact decoding is preserved. UBE also composes with alternative boundary policies and morphology-based representations. In a Unicode 17 audit, UBE exactly round-trips all Unicode scalar values and all inputs in the official normalization, grapheme-break, and emoji test suites. Across intrinsic evaluations, UBE lowers dispersion in English-normalized token-count ratios, reducing cross-lingual token-budget disparity. In multilingual language model (LM) experiments, UBE matches BBPE's LM quality. In the main multilingual settings, UBE reduces token counts most for high-premium scripts and slightly lowers English token counts, yielding more usable context under fixed token budgets and faster prompt processing in content-matched benchmarks.