# Towards Learning-Based Formula 1 Race Strategies

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2512.21570 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2512.21570/

## Key facts

- Cited by 3 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- First posted on arXiv 25 Dec 2025.

## Built on by (most cited first, 3 of 3)

- [Learning-based Multi-agent Race Strategies in Formula 1](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2602.23056/) (2026)
- [Competitor-aware Race Management for Electric Endurance Racing](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2603.28286/) (2026)
- [Bridging RL and MPC for mixed-integer optimal control with application to Formula 1 race strategies](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2604.00826/) (2026)

## Abstract (arXiv)

This paper presents two complementary frameworks to optimize Formula 1 race strategies, jointly accounting for energy allocation, tire wear and pit stop timing. First, the race scenario is modeled using lap time maps and a dynamic tire wear model capturing the main trade-offs arising during a race. Then, we solve the problem by means of a mixed-integer nonlinear program that handles the integer nature of the pit stop decisions. The same race scenario is embedded into a reinforcement learning environment, on which an agent is trained. Providing fast inference at runtime, this method is suited to improve human decision-making during real races. The learned policy's suboptimality is assessed with respect to the optimal solution, both in a nominal scenario and with an unforeseen disturbance. In both cases, the agent achieves approximately 5s of suboptimality on 1.5h of race time, mainly attributable to the different energy allocation strategy. This work lays the foundations for learning-based race strategies and provides a benchmark for future developments.