# Robustness and Imperceptibility Analysis of Hybrid Spatial-Frequency Domain Image Watermarking

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2511.10245 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2511.10245/

## Key facts

- No citing papers in the map yet (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- First posted on arXiv 13 Nov 2025.

## Abstract (arXiv)

The proliferation of digital media necessitates robust methods for copyright protection and content authentication. This paper presents a comprehensive comparative study of digital image watermarking techniques implemented using the spatial domain (Least Significant Bit - LSB), the frequency domain (Discrete Fourier Transform - DFT), and a novel hybrid (LSB+DFT) approach. The core objective is to evaluate the trade-offs between imperceptibility (measured by Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio - PSNR) and robustness (measured by Normalized Correlation - NC and Bit Error Rate - BER). We implemented these three techniques within a unified MATLAB-based experimental framework. The watermarked images were subjected to a battery of common image processing attacks, including JPEG compression, Gaussian noise, and salt-and-pepper noise, at varying intensities. Experimental results generated from standard image datasets (USC-SIPI) demonstrate that while LSB provides superior imperceptibility, it is extremely fragile. The DFT method offers significant robustness at the cost of visual quality. The proposed hybrid LSB+DFT technique, which leverages redundant embedding and a fallback extraction mechanism, is shown to provide the optimal balance, maintaining high visual fidelity while exhibiting superior resilience to all tested attacks.