# Graph Theory Meets Federated Learning over Satellite Constellations: Spanning Aggregations, Network Formation, and Performance Optimization

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2509.24932 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2509.24932/

## Key facts

- No citing papers in the map yet (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- First posted on arXiv 29 Sep 2025.

## Abstract (arXiv)

In this work, we introduce Fed-Span: textitunderlinefederated learning with underlinespanning aggregation over low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellations. Fed-Span aims to address critical challenges inherent to distributed learning in dynamic satellite networks, including intermittent satellite connectivity, heterogeneous computational capabilities of satellites, and time-varying satellites' datasets. At its core, Fed-Span leverages minimum spanning tree (MST) and minimum spanning forest (MSF) topologies to introduce spanning model aggregation and dispatching processes for distributed learning. To formalize Fed-Span, we offer a fresh perspective on MST/MSF topologies by formulating them through a set of continuous constraint representations (CCRs), thereby integrating these topologies into a distributed learning framework for satellite networks. Using these CCRs, we obtain the energy consumption and latency of operations in Fed-Span. Moreover, we derive novel convergence bounds for Fed-Span, accommodating its key system characteristics and degrees of freedom (i.e., tunable parameters). Finally, we propose a comprehensive optimization problem that jointly minimizes model prediction loss, energy consumption, and latency of Fed-Span. We unveil that this problem is NP-hard and develop a systematic approach to transform it into a geometric programming formulation, solved via successive convex optimization with performance guarantees. Through evaluations on real-world datasets, we demonstrate that Fed-Span outperforms existing methods, with faster model convergence, greater energy efficiency, and reduced latency.