# Multi-label Scandinavian Language Identification (SLIDE)

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2502.06692 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.06692/

## Key facts

- Cited by 2 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 18 of its 32 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 10 Feb 2025.

## Builds on (most cited first, 18 of 18)

- [BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1810.04805/) (2018)
- [DistilBERT, a distilled version of BERT: smaller, faster, cheaper and lighter](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1910.01108/) (2019)
- [Unsupervised Cross-lingual Representation Learning at Scale](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1911.02116/) (2019)
- [No Language Left Behind: Scaling Human-Centered Machine Translation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2207.04672/) (2022)
- [Bag of Tricks for Efficient Text Classification](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1607.01759/) (2016)
- [Learning Word Vectors for 157 Languages](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1802.06893/) (2018)
- [Universal Dependencies v2: An Evergrowing Multilingual Treebank Collection](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2004.10643/) (2020)
- [The Tatoeba Translation Challenge -- Realistic Data Sets for Low Resource and Multilingual MT](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2010.06354/) (2020)
- [An Open Dataset and Model for Language Identification](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2305.13820/) (2023)
- [Automatic Language Identification in Texts: A Survey](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1804.08186/) (2018)
- [NorBench -- A Benchmark for Norwegian Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2305.03880/) (2023)
- [NADI 2024: The Fifth Nuanced Arabic Dialect Identification Shared Task](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2407.04910/) (2024)
- [Transfer to a Low-Resource Language via Close Relatives: The Case Study on Faroese](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2304.08823/) (2023)
- [Arabic Dialect Identification under Scrutiny: Limitations of Single-label Classification](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2310.13661/) (2023)
- [Language Variety Identification with True Labels](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2303.01490/) (2023)
- [Small Languages, Big Models: A Study of Continual Training on Languages of Norway](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2412.06484/) (2024)
- [Discriminating Between Similar Nordic Languages](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2012.06431/) (2020)
- [Discriminating Similar Languages: Evaluations and Explorations](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1610.00031/) (2016)

## Built on by (most cited first, 2 of 2)

- [OpenLID-v3: Improving the Precision of Closely Related Language Identification -- An Experience Report](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2602.13139/) (2026)
- [Improving Language Identification for Code-Switched Utterances with Integer Linear Programming](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2609.05099/) (2026)

## Abstract (arXiv)

Identifying closely related languages at sentence level is difficult, in particular because it is often impossible to assign a sentence to a single language. In this paper, we focus on multi-label sentence-level Scandinavian language identification (LID) for Danish, Norwegian Bokmral, Norwegian Nynorsk, and Swedish. We present the Scandinavian Language Identification and Evaluation, SLIDE, a manually curated multi-label evaluation dataset and a suite of LID models with varying speed-accuracy tradeoffs. We demonstrate that the ability to identify multiple languages simultaneously is necessary for any accurate LID method, and present a novel approach to training such multi-label LID models.