# If Eleanor Rigby Had Met ChatGPT: A Study on Loneliness in a Post-LLM World

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2412.01617 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2412.01617/

## Key facts

- Cited by 1 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 16 of its 69 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 2 Dec 2024.

## Builds on (most cited first, 16 of 16)

- [Training language models to follow instructions with human feedback](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2203.02155/) (2022)
- [Judging LLM-as-a-Judge with MT-Bench and Chatbot Arena](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2306.05685/) (2023)
- [RealToxicityPrompts: Evaluating Neural Toxic Degeneration in Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2009.11462/) (2020)
- [Towards Understanding Sycophancy in Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2310.13548/) (2023)
- [Can Large Language Models Be an Alternative to Human Evaluations?](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2305.01937/) (2023)
- [WildChat: 1M ChatGPT Interaction Logs in the Wild](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2405.01470/) (2024)
- [Large Language Models are Inconsistent and Biased Evaluators](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2405.01724/) (2024)
- [Co-Writing with Opinionated Language Models Affects Users' Views](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2302.00560/) (2023)
- [Are Large Language Model-based Evaluators the Solution to Scaling Up Multilingual Evaluation?](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2309.07462/) (2023)
- [RTP-LX: Can LLMs Evaluate Toxicity in Multilingual Scenarios?](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2404.14397/) (2024)
- [Finding Blind Spots in Evaluator LLMs with Interpretable Checklists](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2406.13439/) (2024)
- [Towards Designing a ChatGPT Conversational Companion for Elderly People](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2304.09866/) (2023)
- [Conversational AI Powered by Large Language Models Amplifies False Memories in Witness Interviews](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2408.04681/) (2024)
- [Many Ways to Be Lonely: Fine-Grained Characterization of Loneliness and Its Potential Changes in COVID-19](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2201.07423/) (2022)
- [Social Robots As Companions for Lonely Hearts: The Role of Anthropomorphism and Robot Appearance](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2306.02694/) (2023)
- [The Role of Likes: How Online Feedback Impacts Users' Mental Health](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2312.11914/) (2023)

## Built on by (most cited first, 1 of 1)

- [If LLMs Have Human-Like Attributes, Then So Does Age of Empires II](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2605.31514/) (2026)

## Abstract (arXiv)

Warning: this paper discusses content related, but not limited to, violence, sex, and suicide. Loneliness, or the lack of fulfilling relationships, significantly impacts a person's mental and physical well-being and is prevalent worldwide. Previous research suggests that large language models (LLMs) may help mitigate loneliness. However, we argue that the use of widespread LLMs in services like ChatGPT is more prevalent--and riskier, as they are not designed for this purpose. To explore this, we analysed user interactions with ChatGPT outside of its marketed use as a task-oriented assistant. In dialogues classified as lonely, users frequently (37%) sought advice or validation, and received good engagement. However, ChatGPT failed in sensitive scenarios, like responding appropriately to suicidal ideation or trauma. We also observed a 35% higher incidence of toxic content, with women being 22x more likely to be targeted than men. Our findings underscore ethical and legal questions about this technology, and note risks like radicalisation or further isolation. We conclude with recommendations to research and industry to address loneliness.