# ParkingE2E: Camera-based End-to-end Parking Network, from Images to Planning

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2408.02061 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2408.02061/

## Key facts

- Cited by 15 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 27 of its 31 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 4 Aug 2024.

## Builds on (most cited first, 27 of 27)

- [End-to-End Object Detection with Transformers](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2005.12872/) (2020)
- [EfficientNet: Rethinking Model Scaling for Convolutional Neural Networks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1905.11946/) (2019)
- [3D Gaussian Splatting for Real-Time Radiance Field Rendering](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2308.04079/) (2023)
- [CARLA: An Open Urban Driving Simulator](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1711.03938/) (2017)
- [BEVFormer: Learning Bird's-Eye-View Representation from Multi-Camera Images via Spatiotemporal Transformers](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2203.17270/) (2022)
- [Planning-oriented Autonomous Driving](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2212.10156/) (2022)
- [Lift, Splat, Shoot: Encoding Images From Arbitrary Camera Rigs by Implicitly Unprojecting to 3D](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2008.05711/) (2020)
- [DETR3D: 3D Object Detection from Multi-view Images via 3D-to-2D Queries](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2110.06922/) (2021)
- [BEVDepth: Acquisition of Reliable Depth for Multi-view 3D Object Detection](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2206.10092/) (2022)
- [PETR: Position Embedding Transformation for Multi-View 3D Object Detection](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2203.05625/) (2022)
- [End-to-end Autonomous Driving: Challenges and Frontiers](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2306.16927/) (2023)
- [End-to-end Driving via Conditional Imitation Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1710.02410/) (2017)
- [TransFuser: Imitation with Transformer-Based Sensor Fusion for Autonomous Driving](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2205.15997/) (2022)
- [ChauffeurNet: Learning to Drive by Imitating the Best and Synthesizing the Worst](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1812.03079/) (2018)
- [Learning by Cheating](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1912.12294/) (2019)
- [Multi-Modal Fusion Transformer for End-to-End Autonomous Driving](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2104.09224/) (2021)
- [Pix2seq: A Language Modeling Framework for Object Detection](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2109.10852/) (2021)
- [Exploring the Limitations of Behavior Cloning for Autonomous Driving](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1904.08980/) (2019)
- [BEVFusion: A Simple and Robust LiDAR-Camera Fusion Framework](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2205.13790/) (2022)
- [Trajectory-guided Control Prediction for End-to-end Autonomous Driving: A Simple yet Strong Baseline](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2206.08129/) (2022)
- [MP3: A Unified Model to Map, Perceive, Predict and Plan](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2101.06806/) (2021)
- [Safety-Enhanced Autonomous Driving Using Interpretable Sensor Fusion Transformer](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2207.14024/) (2022)
- [NEAT: Neural Attention Fields for End-to-End Autonomous Driving](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2109.04456/) (2021)
- [Recent Advancements in End-to-End Autonomous Driving using Deep Learning: A Survey](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2307.04370/) (2023)
- [AVP-SLAM: Semantic Visual Mapping and Localization for Autonomous Vehicles in the Parking Lot](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2007.01813/) (2020)
- [ParkPredict+: Multimodal Intent and Motion Prediction for Vehicles in Parking Lots with CNN and Transformer](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2204.10777/) (2022)
- [ParkPredict: Motion and Intent Prediction of Vehicles in Parking Lots](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2004.10293/) (2020)

## Built on by (most cited first, 15 of 15)

- [RL-OGM-Parking: Lidar OGM-Based Hybrid Reinforcement Learning Planner for Autonomous Parking](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.18846/) (2025)
- [ParkDiffusion: Heterogeneous Multi-Agent Multi-Modal Trajectory Prediction for Automated Parking using Diffusion Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2505.00586/) (2025)
- [TransParking: A Dual-Decoder Transformer Framework with Soft Localization for End-to-End Automatic Parking](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2503.06071/) (2025)
- [ParkFormer: A Transformer-Based Parking Policy with Goal Embedding and Pedestrian-Aware Control](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2506.16856/) (2025)
- [End-to-End Visual Autonomous Parking via Control-Aided Attention](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2509.11090/) (2025)
- [E2E Parking Dataset: An Open Benchmark for End-to-End Autonomous Parking](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2504.10812/) (2025)
- [SEG-Parking: Towards Safe, Efficient, and Generalizable Autonomous Parking via End-to-End Offline Reinforcement Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2509.13956/) (2025)
- [A Diffusion-Refined Planner with Reinforcement Learning Priors for Confined-Space Parking](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2510.14000/) (2025)
- [REAP: Reinforcement-Learning End-to-End Autonomous Parking with Gaussian Splatting Simulator for Real2Sim2Real Transfer](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2605.08713/) (2026)
- [Dino-Diffusion Modular Designs Bridge the Cross-Domain Gap in Autonomous Parking](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2510.20335/) (2025)
- [ParkingWorld: End-to-End Autonomous Parking Reinforcement Learning from Corrective Experience in 3DGS Simulation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2605.25029/) (2026)
- [NeuralParker: A Reinforcement Learning Planner for Irregular Parking Environments](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2608.24485/) (2026)
- [Learning Reliable Parking Policies via Offline Reinforcement Learning with Quantized Action Representations](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2609.19894/) (2026)
- [From Semantic Decisions to Feasible Trajectories: Self-Evolving LLM-Guided Optimal Control for Narrow-Space Parking](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2609.24631/) (2026)
- [Timed Rule-Based Supervision of an End-to-End Autonomous Parking Policy](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2609.31773/) (2026)

## Abstract (arXiv)

Autonomous parking is a crucial task in the intelligent driving field. Traditional parking algorithms are usually implemented using rule-based schemes. However, these methods are less effective in complex parking scenarios due to the intricate design of the algorithms. In contrast, neural-network-based methods tend to be more intuitive and versatile than the rule-based methods. By collecting a large number of expert parking trajectory data and emulating human strategy via learning-based methods, the parking task can be effectively addressed. In this paper, we employ imitation learning to perform end-to-end planning from RGB images to path planning by imitating human driving trajectories. The proposed end-to-end approach utilizes a target query encoder to fuse images and target features, and a transformer-based decoder to autoregressively predict future waypoints. We conducted extensive experiments in real-world scenarios, and the results demonstrate that the proposed method achieved an average parking success rate of 87.8% across four different real-world garages. Real-vehicle experiments further validate the feasibility and effectiveness of the method proposed in this paper.