# How Well Do LLMs Represent Values Across Cultures? Empirical Analysis of LLM Responses Based on Hofstede Cultural Dimensions

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2406.14805 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2406.14805/

## Key facts

- Cited by 52 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 25 of its 75 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 21 Jun 2024.

## Builds on (most cited first, 25 of 25)

- [Language Models are Few-Shot Learners](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2005.14165/) (2020)
- [LLaMA: Open and Efficient Foundation Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2302.13971/) (2023)
- [Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Knowledge-Intensive NLP Tasks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2005.11401/) (2020)
- [Benchmarking Neural Network Robustness to Common Corruptions and Perturbations](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1903.12261/) (2019)
- [Self-Instruct: Aligning Language Models with Self-Generated Instructions](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2212.10560/) (2022)
- [No Language Left Behind: Scaling Human-Centered Machine Translation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2207.04672/) (2022)
- [A General Language Assistant as a Laboratory for Alignment](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2112.00861/) (2021)
- [Towards Understanding Sycophancy in Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2310.13548/) (2023)
- [A Multitask, Multilingual, Multimodal Evaluation of ChatGPT on Reasoning, Hallucination, and Interactivity](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2302.04023/) (2023)
- [Discovering Language Model Behaviors with Model-Written Evaluations](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2212.09251/) (2022)
- [Open Problems and Fundamental Limitations of Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2307.15217/) (2023)
- [Scalable agent alignment via reward modeling: a research direction](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1811.07871/) (2018)
- [Cultural Alignment in Large Language Models: An Explanatory Analysis Based on Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2309.12342/) (2023)
- [Don't Trust ChatGPT when Your Question is not in English: A Study of Multilingual Abilities and Types of LLMs](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2305.16339/) (2023)
- [Are You Sure? Challenging LLMs Leads to Performance Drops in The FlipFlop Experiment](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2311.08596/) (2023)
- [(A)I Am Not a Lawyer, But...: Engaging Legal Experts towards Responsible LLM Policies for Legal Advice](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2402.01864/) (2024)
- [From Words to Numbers: Your Large Language Model Is Secretly A Capable Regressor When Given In-Context Examples](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2404.07544/) (2024)
- [Exploring Multilingual Concepts of Human Value in Large Language Models: Is Value Alignment Consistent, Transferable and Controllable across Languages?](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2402.18120/) (2024)
- [Investigations of Performance and Bias in Human-AI Teamwork in Hiring](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2202.11812/) (2022)
- [On the Role of Negative Precedent in Legal Outcome Prediction](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2208.08225/) (2022)
- [Exploring and steering the moral compass of Large Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2405.17345/) (2024)
- [Extending Llama-3's Context Ten-Fold Overnight](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2404.19553/) (2024)
- [Large Language Models as Corporate Lobbyists](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2301.01181/) (2023)
- [Bringing order into the realm of Transformer-based language models for artificial intelligence and law](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2308.05502/) (2023)
- [Powering an AI Chatbot with Expert Sourcing to Support Credible Health Information Access](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2301.10710/) (2023)

## Built on by (most cited first, 30 of 52)

- [Mind the Value-Action Gap: Do LLMs Act in Alignment with Their Values?](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2501.15463/) (2025)
- [LLM-GLOBE: A Benchmark Evaluating the Cultural Values Embedded in LLM Output](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2411.06032/) (2024)
- [Break the Checkbox: Challenging Closed-Style Evaluations of Cultural Alignment in LLMs](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.08045/) (2025)
- [Multiple LLM Agents Debate for Equitable Cultural Alignment](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2505.24671/) (2025)
- [A Survey on Human-Centric LLMs](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2411.14491/) (2024)
- [DRISHTIKON: A Multimodal Multilingual Benchmark for Testing Language Models' Understanding on Indian Culture](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2509.19274/) (2025)
- [ValuesRAG: Enhancing Cultural Alignment Through Retrieval-Augmented Contextual Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2501.01031/) (2025)
- [Do Psychometric Tests Work for Large Language Models? Evaluation of Tests on Sexism, Racism, and Morality](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2510.11254/) (2025)
- [Evaluating Cultural Awareness of LLMs for Yoruba, Malayalam, and English](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2410.01811/) (2024)
- [An Investigation into Value Misalignment in LLM-Generated Texts for Cultural Heritage](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2501.02039/) (2025)
- [Meta-Cultural Competence: Climbing the Right Hill of Cultural Awareness](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.09637/) (2025)
- [SaudiCulture: A Benchmark for Evaluating Large Language Models Cultural Competence within Saudi Arabia](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2503.17485/) (2025)
- [Cultural Fidelity in Large-Language Models: An Evaluation of Online Language Resources as a Driver of Model Performance in Value Representation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2410.10489/) (2024)
- [Unequal Opportunities: Examining the Bias in Geographical Recommendations by Large Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2504.05325/) (2025)
- [Knowing But Not Doing: Convergent Morality and Divergent Action in LLMs](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2601.07972/) (2026)
- [Position: LLMs Can be Good Tutors in English Education](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.05467/) (2025)
- [CAReDiO: Cultural Alignment via Representativeness and Distinctiveness Guided Data Optimization](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2504.08820/) (2025)
- [EvalMORAAL: Interpretable Chain-of-Thought and LLM-as-Judge Evaluation for Moral Alignment in Large Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2510.05942/) (2025)
- [Evaluating LLM Adaptation to Sociodemographic Factors: User Profile vs. Dialogue History](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2505.21362/) (2025)
- [Multi-level Value Alignment in Agentic AI Systems: Survey and Perspectives](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2506.09656/) (2025)
- [Do Large Language Models Understand Morality Across Cultures?](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2507.21319/) (2025)
- [Culturally-Aware Conversations: A Framework & Benchmark for LLMs](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2510.11563/) (2025)
- [Counterfactual Reasoning for Steerable Pluralistic Value Alignment of Large Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2510.18526/) (2025)
- [Through the Prism of Culture: Evaluating LLMs' Understanding of Indian Subcultures and Traditions](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2501.16748/) (2025)
- [AI Propaganda factories with language models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2508.20186/) (2025)
- [RoleConflictBench: A Benchmark of Role Conflict Scenarios for Evaluating LLMs' Contextual Sensitivity](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2509.25897/) (2025)
- [Identity-Aware Large Language Models require Cultural Reasoning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2510.18510/) (2025)
- [Kalahi: A handcrafted, grassroots cultural LLM evaluation suite for Filipino](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2409.15380/) (2024)
- [LLMs as mirrors of societal moral standards: reflection of cultural divergence and agreement across ethical topics](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2412.00962/) (2024)
- [What are Foundation Models Cooking in the Post-Soviet World?](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.18583/) (2025)

## Abstract (arXiv)

Large Language Models (LLMs) attempt to imitate human behavior by responding to humans in a way that pleases them, including by adhering to their values. However, humans come from diverse cultures with different values. It is critical to understand whether LLMs showcase different values to the user based on the stereotypical values of a user's known country. We prompt different LLMs with a series of advice requests based on 5 Hofstede Cultural Dimensions -- a quantifiable way of representing the values of a country. Throughout each prompt, we incorporate personas representing 36 different countries and, separately, languages predominantly tied to each country to analyze the consistency in the LLMs' cultural understanding. Through our analysis of the responses, we found that LLMs can differentiate between one side of a value and another, as well as understand that countries have differing values, but will not always uphold the values when giving advice, and fail to understand the need to answer differently based on different cultural values. Rooted in these findings, we present recommendations for training value-aligned and culturally sensitive LLMs. More importantly, the methodology and the framework developed here can help further understand and mitigate culture and language alignment issues with LLMs.