# Starling Formation-Flying Optical Experiment: Initial Operations and Flight Results

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2406.06748 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2406.06748/

## Key facts

- Cited by 2 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- First posted on arXiv 10 Jun 2024.

## Built on by (most cited first, 2 of 2)

- [Towards Robust Spacecraft Trajectory Optimization via Transformers](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2410.05585/) (2024)
- [Toward Trusted Onboard AI: Advancing Small Satellite Operations using Reinforcement Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2507.22198/) (2025)

## Abstract (arXiv)

This paper presents initial flight results for distributed optical angles-only navigation of a swarm of small spacecraft, conducted during the Starling Formation-Flying Optical Experiment (StarFOX). StarFOX is a core payload of the NASA Starling mission, which consists of four CubeSats launched in 2023. Prior angles-only flight demonstrations have only featured one observer and target and have relied upon a-priori target orbit knowledge for initialization, translational maneuvers to resolve target range, and external absolute orbit updates to maintain convergence. StarFOX overcomes these limitations by applying the angles-only Absolute and Relative Trajectory Measurement System (ARTMS), which integrates three novel algorithms. Image Processing detects and tracks multiple targets in images from each satellite's on-board camera. Batch Orbit Determination computes initial swarm orbit estimates from bearing angle batches. Sequential Orbit Determination leverages an unscented Kalman filter to refine swarm state estimates over time. Multi-observer measurements shared over an intersatellite link are seamlessly fused to enable absolute and relative orbit determination. StarFOX flight data presents the first demonstrations of autonomous angles-only navigation for a satellite swarm, including multi-target and multi-observer relative navigation; autonomous initialization of navigation for unknown targets; and simultaneous absolute and relative orbit determination. Relative positioning uncertainties of 1.3% of target range (1σ) are achieved for a single observer under challenging measurement conditions, reduced to 0.6% (1σ) with multiple observers. Results demonstrate promising performance with regards to ongoing StarFOX campaigns and the application of angles-only navigation to future distributed missions.