# Examining Humanness as a Metaphor to Design Voice User Interfaces

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2405.07458 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2405.07458/

## Key facts

- Cited by 6 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- First posted on arXiv 13 May 2024.

## Built on by (most cited first, 6 of 6)

- [Where Do I 'Add the Egg'?: Exploring Agency and Ownership in AI Creative Co-Writing Systems](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2509.15440/) (2025)
- [Designing AI Personalities: Enhancing Human-Agent Interaction Through Thoughtful Persona Design](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2410.22744/) (2024)
- [Toward Metaphor-Fluid Conversation Design for Voice User Interfaces](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.11554/) (2025)
- [Vibe Check: Understanding the Effects of LLM-Based Conversational Agents' Personality and Alignment on User Perceptions in Goal-Oriented Tasks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2509.09870/) (2025)
- [Behavior-Adaptive Conversational Agents: Toward a Fluid Personality Framework](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2607.01034/) (2026)
- [Deflecting the Value Compass: Interacting with Large Language Models Temporarily Shifts Human Value Priorities Toward Personal Focus](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2609.25586/) (2026)

## Abstract (arXiv)

Voice User Interfaces (VUIs) increasingly leverage 'humanness' as a foundational design metaphor, adopting roles like 'assistants,' 'teachers,' and 'secretaries' to foster natural interactions. Yet, this approach can sometimes misalign user trust and reinforce societal stereotypes, leading to socio-technical challenges that might impede long-term engagement. This paper explores an alternative approach to navigate these challenges-incorporating non-human metaphors in VUI design. We report on a study with 240 participants examining the effects of human versus non-human metaphors on user perceptions within health and finance domains. Results indicate a preference for the human metaphor (doctor) over the non-human (health encyclopedia) in health contexts for its perceived enjoyability and likeability. In finance, however, user perceptions do not significantly differ between human (financial advisor) and non-human (calculator) metaphors. Importantly, our research reveals that the explicit awareness of a metaphor's use influences adoption intentions, with a marked preference for non-human metaphors when their metaphorical nature is not disclosed. These findings highlight context-specific conversation design strategies required in integrating non-human metaphors into VUI design, suggesting tradeoffs and design considerations that could enhance user engagement and adoption.