# A Decision-Language Model (DLM) for Dynamic Restless Multi-Armed Bandit Tasks in Public Health

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2402.14807 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2402.14807/

## Key facts

- Cited by 24 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 23 of its 108 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 22 Feb 2024.

## Builds on (most cited first, 23 of 23)

- [Proximal Policy Optimization Algorithms](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1707.06347/) (2017)
- [Reflexion: Language Agents with Verbal Reinforcement Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2303.11366/) (2023)
- [Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1606.03476/) (2016)
- [Deep Reinforcement Learning at the Edge of the Statistical Precipice](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2108.13264/) (2021)
- [What learning algorithm is in-context learning? Investigations with linear models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2211.15661/) (2022)
- [Eureka: Human-Level Reward Design via Coding Large Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2310.12931/) (2023)
- [LM-Nav: Robotic Navigation with Large Pre-Trained Models of Language, Vision, and Action](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2207.04429/) (2022)
- [ChatGPT for Robotics: Design Principles and Model Abilities](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2306.17582/) (2023)
- [Transformers as Soft Reasoners over Language](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2002.05867/) (2020)
- [Reward Design with Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2303.00001/) (2023)
- [Pre-Trained Language Models for Interactive Decision-Making](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2202.01771/) (2022)
- [Guiding Pretraining in Reinforcement Learning with Large Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2302.06692/) (2023)
- [Auto MC-Reward: Automated Dense Reward Design with Large Language Models for Minecraft](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2312.09238/) (2023)
- [Field Study in Deploying Restless Multi-Armed Bandits: Assisting Non-Profits in Improving Maternal and Child Health](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2109.08075/) (2021)
- [What Can Learned Intrinsic Rewards Capture?](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1912.05500/) (2019)
- [NeurWIN: Neural Whittle Index Network For Restless Bandits Via Deep RL](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2110.02128/) (2021)
- [NLP for Maternal Healthcare: Perspectives and Guiding Principles in the Age of LLMs](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2312.11803/) (2023)
- [Scalable Decision-Focused Learning in Restless Multi-Armed Bandits with Application to Maternal and Child Health](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2202.00916/) (2022)
- [Efficient Resource Allocation with Fairness Constraints in Restless Multi-Armed Bandits](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2206.03883/) (2022)
- [Online Restless Multi-Armed Bandits with Long-Term Fairness Constraints](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2312.10303/) (2023)
- [Towards a Pretrained Model for Restless Bandits via Multi-arm Generalization](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2310.14526/) (2023)
- [Selective Intervention Planning using Restless Multi-Armed Bandits to Improve Maternal and Child Health Outcomes](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2103.09052/) (2021)
- [Restless and Uncertain: Robust Policies for Restless Bandits via Deep Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2107.01689/) (2021)

## Built on by (most cited first, 24 of 24)

- [Efficient Evolutionary Search Over Chemical Space with Large Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2406.16976/) (2024)
- [KABB: Knowledge-Aware Bayesian Bandits for Dynamic Expert Coordination in Multi-Agent Systems](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.07350/) (2025)
- [From Language to Action: A Review of Large Language Models as Autonomous Agents and Tool Users](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2508.17281/) (2025)
- [HealthQ: Unveiling Questioning Capabilities of LLM Chains in Healthcare Conversations](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2409.19487/) (2024)
- [CT-PatchTST: Channel-Time Patch Time-Series Transformer for Long-Term Renewable Energy Forecasting](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2501.08620/) (2025)
- [HADES: Hardware Accelerated Decoding for Efficient Speculation in Large Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2412.19925/) (2024)
- [Research on Large Language Model Cross-Cloud Privacy Protection and Collaborative Training based on Federated Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2503.12226/) (2025)
- [Balancing Act: Prioritization Strategies for LLM-Designed Restless Bandit Rewards](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2408.12112/) (2024)
- [Towards Foundation-model-based Multiagent System to Accelerate AI for Social Impact](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2412.07880/) (2024)
- [Image-to-Image Translation with Diffusion Transformers and CLIP-Based Image Conditioning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2505.16001/) (2025)
- [The Bandit Whisperer: Communication Learning for Restless Bandits](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2408.05686/) (2024)
- [Improving the Prediction of Individual Engagement in Recommendations Using Cognitive Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2408.16147/) (2024)
- [Reflective Verbal Reward Design for Pluralistic Alignment](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2506.17834/) (2025)
- [Lightweight Robust Direct Preference Optimization](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2510.23590/) (2025)
- [Anomaly Detection and Early Warning Mechanism for Intelligent Monitoring Systems in Multi-Cloud Environments Based on LLM](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2506.07407/) (2025)
- [Online Learning of Whittle Indices for Restless Bandits with Non-Stationary Transition Kernels](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2506.18186/) (2025)
- [VORTEX: Aligning Task Utility and Human Preferences through LLM-Guided Reward Shaping](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2509.16399/) (2025)
- [A Component-Based Survey of Interactions between Large Language Models and Multi-Armed Bandits](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2601.12945/) (2026)
- [An Intelligent Fault Self-Healing Mechanism for Cloud AI Systems via Integration of Large Language Models and Deep Reinforcement Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2506.07411/) (2025)
- [RescueLens: LLM-Powered Triage and Action on Volunteer Feedback for Food Rescue](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2511.15698/) (2025)
- [Health Facility Location in Ethiopia: Leveraging LLMs to Integrate Expert Knowledge into Algorithmic Planning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2601.11479/) (2026)
- [Decisions and Deployment: The Five-Year SAHELI Project (2020-2025) on Restless Multi-Armed Bandits for Improving Maternal and Child Health](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2604.07384/) (2026)
- [Generating Robust Portfolios of Optimization Models using Large Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2605.27013/) (2026)
- [The Evidence Ladder for Reinforcement Learning in Healthcare: From Retrospective Policies to Trusted Interventions](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2609.23374/) (2026)

## Abstract (arXiv)

Restless multi-armed bandits (RMAB) have demonstrated success in optimizing resource allocation for large beneficiary populations in public health settings. Unfortunately, RMAB models lack flexibility to adapt to evolving public health policy priorities. Concurrently, Large Language Models (LLMs) have emerged as adept automated planners across domains of robotic control and navigation. In this paper, we propose a Decision Language Model (DLM) for RMABs, enabling dynamic fine-tuning of RMAB policies in public health settings using human-language commands. We propose using LLMs as automated planners to (1) interpret human policy preference prompts, (2) propose reward functions as code for a multi-agent RMAB environment, and (3) iterate on the generated reward functions using feedback from grounded RMAB simulations. We illustrate the application of DLM in collaboration with ARMMAN, an India-based non-profit promoting preventative care for pregnant mothers, that currently relies on RMAB policies to optimally allocate health worker calls to low-resource populations. We conduct a technology demonstration in simulation using the Gemini Pro model, showing DLM can dynamically shape policy outcomes using only human prompts as input.