# Improved Performances and Motivation in Intelligent Tutoring Systems: Combining Machine Learning and Learner Choice

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2402.01669 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2402.01669/

## Key facts

- Cited by 1 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 5 of its 82 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 16 Jan 2024.

## Builds on (most cited first, 5 of 5)

- [Automated Curriculum Learning for Neural Networks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1704.03003/) (2017)
- [Automatic Curriculum Learning For Deep RL: A Short Survey](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2003.04664/) (2020)
- [CURIOUS: Intrinsically Motivated Modular Multi-Goal Reinforcement Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1810.06284/) (2018)
- [Active World Model Learning with Progress Curiosity](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2007.07853/) (2020)
- [Multi-Armed Bandits for Intelligent Tutoring Systems](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1310.3174/) (2013)

## Built on by (most cited first, 1 of 1)

- [Effective Personalized AI Tutors via LLM-Guided Reinforcement Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2608.16907/) (2026)

## Abstract (arXiv)

Large class sizes challenge personalized learning in schools, prompting the use of educational technologies such as intelligent tutoring systems. To address this, we present an AI-driven personalization system, called ZPDES, based on the Learning Progress Hypothesis - modeling curiosity-driven learning - and multi-armed bandit techniques. It sequences exercises that maximize learning progress for each student. While previous studies demonstrated its efficacy in enhancing learning compared to hand-made curricula, its impact on student motivation remained unexplored. Furthermore, ZPDES previously lacked features allowing student choice, a limitation in agency that conflicts with its foundation on models of curiosity-driven learning. This study investigates how integrating choice, as a gamification element unrelated to exercise difficulty, affects both learning outcomes and motivation. We conducted an extensive field study (265 7-8 years old children, RCT design), comparing ZPDES with and without choice against a hand-designed curriculum. Results show that ZPDES improves both learning performance and the learning experience. Moreover adding choice to ZPDES enhances intrinsic motivation and further strengthens its learning benefits. In contrast, incorporating choice into a fixed, linear curriculum negatively impacts learning outcomes. These findings highlight that the intrinsic motivation elicited by choice (gamification) is beneficial only when paired with an adaptive personalized learning system. This insight is critical as gamified features become increasingly prevalent in educational technologies.