# Beyond Prediction: On-street Parking Recommendation using Heterogeneous Graph-based List-wise Ranking

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.00162 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2305.00162/

## Key facts

- Cited by 1 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 16 of its 57 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 29 Apr 2023.

## Builds on (most cited first, 16 of 16)

- [Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1512.03385/) (2015)
- [Adam: A Method for Stochastic Optimization](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1412.6980/) (2014)
- [Semi-Supervised Classification with Graph Convolutional Networks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1609.02907/) (2016)
- [Mask R-CNN](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1703.06870/) (2017)
- [Language Modeling with Gated Convolutional Networks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1612.08083/) (2016)
- [Benchmarking Graph Neural Networks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2003.00982/) (2020)
- [T-GCN: A Temporal Graph ConvolutionalNetwork for Traffic Prediction](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1811.05320/) (2018)
- [NeuralNDCG: Direct Optimisation of a Ranking Metric via Differentiable Relaxation of Sorting](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2102.07831/) (2021)
- [Seq2Slate: Re-ranking and Slate Optimization with RNNs](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1810.02019/) (2018)
- [Beyond expectation: Deep joint mean and quantile regression for spatio-temporal problems](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1808.08798/) (2018)
- [Semi-Supervised Hierarchical Recurrent Graph Neural Network for City-Wide Parking Availability Prediction](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1911.10516/) (2019)
- [Learning Groupwise Multivariate Scoring Functions Using Deep Neural Networks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1811.04415/) (2018)
- [Context-Aware Learning to Rank with Self-Attention](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2005.10084/) (2020)
- [A Smart, Efficient, and Reliable Parking Surveillance System with Edge Artificial Intelligence on IoT Devices](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2001.00269/) (2020)
- [Space4HGNN: A Novel, Modularized and Reproducible Platform to Evaluate Heterogeneous Graph Neural Network](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2202.09177/) (2022)
- [A Graph and Attentive Multi-Path Convolutional Network for Traffic Prediction](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2205.15218/) (2022)

## Built on by (most cited first, 1 of 1)

- [Dynamic Configuration of On-Street Parking Spaces using Multi Agent Reinforcement Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2512.02406/) (2025)

## Abstract (arXiv)

To provide real-time parking information, existing studies focus on predicting parking availability, which seems an indirect approach to saving drivers' cruising time. In this paper, we first time propose an on-street parking recommendation (OPR) task to directly recommend a parking space for a driver. To this end, a learn-to-rank (LTR) based OPR model called OPR-LTR is built. Specifically, parking recommendation is closely related to the "turnover events" (state switching between occupied and vacant) of each parking space, and hence we design a highly efficient heterogeneous graph called ESGraph to represent historical and real-time meters' turnover events as well as geographical relations; afterward, a convolution-based event-then-graph network is used to aggregate and update representations of the heterogeneous graph. A ranking model is further utilized to learn a score function that helps recommend a list of ranked parking spots for a specific on-street parking query. The method is verified using the on-street parking meter data in Hong Kong and San Francisco. By comparing with the other two types of methods: prediction-only and prediction-then-recommendation, the proposed direct-recommendation method achieves satisfactory performance in different metrics. Extensive experiments also demonstrate that the proposed ESGraph and the recommendation model are more efficient in terms of computational efficiency as well as saving drivers' on-street parking time.