# Quantum Natural Language Generation on Near-Term Devices

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2211.00727 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2211.00727/

## Key facts

- Cited by 11 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 15 of its 46 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 1 Nov 2022.

## Builds on (most cited first, 15 of 15)

- [BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1810.04805/) (2018)
- [Language Models are Few-Shot Learners](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2005.14165/) (2020)
- [Supervised learning with quantum enhanced feature spaces](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1804.11326/) (2018)
- [A Survey of Evaluation Metrics Used for NLG Systems](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2008.12009/) (2020)
- [Quantum Long Short-Term Memory](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2009.01783/) (2020)
- [CGMH: Constrained Sentence Generation by Metropolis-Hastings Sampling](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1811.10996/) (2018)
- [QNLP in Practice: Running Compositional Models of Meaning on a Quantum Computer](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2102.12846/) (2021)
- [Foundations for Near-Term Quantum Natural Language Processing](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2012.03755/) (2020)
- [lambeq: An Efficient High-Level Python Library for Quantum NLP](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2110.04236/) (2021)
- [Unsupervised Paraphrasing by Simulated Annealing](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1909.03588/) (2019)
- [The Mathematics of Text Structure](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1904.03478/) (2019)
- [A CCG-Based Version of the DisCoCat Framework](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2105.07720/) (2021)
- [Quantum Computing: Lecture Notes](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1907.09415/) (2019)
- [A Quantum Natural Language Processing Approach to Musical Intelligence](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2111.06741/) (2021)
- [A quantum procedure for map generation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2005.10327/) (2020)

## Built on by (most cited first, 11 of 11)

- [Quantum-Noise-Driven Generative Diffusion Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2308.12013/) (2023)
- [Quantum Natural Language Processing](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2403.19758/) (2024)
- [Quantum Natural Language Processing: A Comprehensive Review of Models, Methods, and Applications](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2504.09909/) (2025)
- [Towards Transparency in Coreference Resolution: A Quantum-Inspired Approach](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2312.00688/) (2023)
- [Property-guided Inverse Design of Metal-Organic Frameworks Using Quantum Natural Language Processing](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2405.11783/) (2024)
- [Practical Hybrid Quantum Language Models with Observable Readout on Real Hardware](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2512.12710/) (2025)
- [Variational Quantum Classifiers for Natural-Language Text](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2303.02469/) (2023)
- [Level Generation with Quantum Reservoir Computing](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2505.13287/) (2025)
- [QCSE: A Pretrained Quantum Context-Sensitive Word Embedding for Natural Language Processing](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2509.05729/) (2025)
- [Variational Quantum Transformer Architecture for Synthetic Language Generation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2609.18565/) (2026)
- [Trainable Quantum-Native Language Models: Dissipative Memory, Capacity Limits, and Hardware Validation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2610.12806/) (2026)

## Abstract (arXiv)

The emergence of noisy medium-scale quantum devices has led to proof-of-concept applications for quantum computing in various domains. Examples include Natural Language Processing (NLP) where sentence classification experiments have been carried out, as well as procedural generation, where tasks such as geopolitical map creation, and image manipulation have been performed. We explore applications at the intersection of these two areas by designing a hybrid quantum-classical algorithm for sentence generation. Our algorithm is based on the well-known simulated annealing technique for combinatorial optimisation. An implementation is provided and used to demonstrate successful sentence generation on both simulated and real quantum hardware. A variant of our algorithm can also be used for music generation. This paper aims to be self-contained, introducing all the necessary background on NLP and quantum computing along the way.