# What is Proxy Discrimination?

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2205.05265 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2205.05265/

## Key facts

- Cited by 7 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 10 of its 55 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 11 May 2022.

## Builds on (most cited first, 10 of 10)

- [Certifying and removing disparate impact](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1412.3756/) (2014)
- [Preventing Fairness Gerrymandering: Auditing and Learning for Subgroup Fairness](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1711.05144/) (2017)
- [Avoiding Discrimination through Causal Reasoning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1706.02744/) (2017)
- [An Empirical Study of Rich Subgroup Fairness for Machine Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1808.08166/) (2018)
- [From Parity to Preference-based Notions of Fairness in Classification](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1707.00010/) (2017)
- [Fairness Under Composition](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1806.06122/) (2018)
- [Proxy Non-Discrimination in Data-Driven Systems](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1707.08120/) (2017)
- [On the Distinction Between "Conditional Average Treatment Effects" (CATE) and "Individual Treatment Effects" (ITE) Under Ignorability Assumptions](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2108.04939/) (2021)
- [Definitions of intent suitable for algorithms](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2106.04235/) (2021)
- [A Methodology for Information Flow Experiments](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1405.2376/) (2014)

## Built on by (most cited first, 7 of 7)

- [Revisiting the Performance-Explainability Trade-Off in Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI)](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2307.14239/) (2023)
- [Counterfactual Situation Testing: Uncovering Discrimination under Fairness given the Difference](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2302.11944/) (2023)
- [Unlawful Proxy Discrimination: A Framework for Challenging Inherently Discriminatory Algorithms](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2404.14050/) (2024)
- [Mutatis Mutandis: Revisiting the Comparator in Discrimination Testing](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2405.13693/) (2024)
- [Formalising Anti-Discrimination Law in Automated Decision Systems](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2407.00400/) (2024)
- [Counterfactual Situation Testing: From Single to Multidimensional Discrimination](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.01267/) (2025)
- [On Explaining Proxy Discrimination and Unfairness in Individual Decisions Made by AI Systems](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2509.25662/) (2025)

## Abstract (arXiv)

The near universal condemnation of proxy discrimination hides a disagreement over what it is. This work surveys various notions of proxy and proxy discrimination found in prior work and represents them in a common framework. These notions variously turn on statistical dependencies, causal effects, and intentions. It discusses the limitations and uses of each notation and of the concept as a whole.