# Toward Educator-focused Automated Scoring Systems for Reading and Writing

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2112.11973 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2112.11973/

## Key facts

- Cited by 1 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 15 of its 49 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 22 Dec 2021.

## Builds on (most cited first, 15 of 15)

- [Attention Is All You Need](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1706.03762/) (2017)
- [BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1810.04805/) (2018)
- [Adam: A Method for Stochastic Optimization](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1412.6980/) (2014)
- [Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1908.10084/) (2019)
- [Longformer: The Long-Document Transformer](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2004.05150/) (2020)
- [Sequence to Sequence Learning with Neural Networks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1409.3215/) (2014)
- [XLNet: Generalized Autoregressive Pretraining for Language Understanding](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1906.08237/) (2019)
- [Effective Approaches to Attention-based Neural Machine Translation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1508.04025/) (2015)
- [Universal Sentence Encoder](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1803.11175/) (2018)
- [HDLTex: Hierarchical Deep Learning for Text Classification](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1709.08267/) (2017)
- [Automatic Text Scoring Using Neural Networks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1606.04289/) (2016)
- [Language models and Automated Essay Scoring](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1909.09482/) (2019)
- [Automated essay scoring with string kernels and word embeddings](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1804.07954/) (2018)
- [SkipFlow: Incorporating Neural Coherence Features for End-to-End Automatic Text Scoring](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1711.04981/) (2017)
- [Automated Essay Scoring based on Two-Stage Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1901.07744/) (2019)

## Built on by (most cited first, 1 of 1)

- [A review on the use of large language models as virtual tutors](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2405.11983/) (2024)

## Abstract (arXiv)

This paper presents methods for improving automated essay scoring with techniques that address the computational trade-offs of self-attention and document length. To make Automated Essay Scoring (AES) more useful to practitioners, researchers must overcome the challenges of data and label availability, authentic and extended writing, domain scoring, prompt and source variety, and transfer learning. This paper addresses these challenges using neural network models by employing techniques that preserve essay length as an important feature without increasing model training costs. It introduces techniques for minimizing classification loss on ordinal labels using multi-objective learning, capturing semantic information across the entire essay using sentence embeddings to use transformer architecture across arbitrarily long documents, the use of such models for transfer learning, automated hyperparameter generation based on prompt-corpus metadata, and, most importantly, the use of semantic information to provide meaningful insights into student reading through analysis of passage-dependent writing resulting in state-of-the-art results for various essay tasks.