# InsertGNN: Can Graph Neural Networks Outperform Humans in TOEFL Sentence Insertion Problem?

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2103.15066 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2103.15066/

## Key facts

- No citing papers in the map yet (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 11 of its 25 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 28 Mar 2021.

## Builds on (most cited first, 11 of 11)

- [BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understanding](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1810.04805/) (2018)
- [RoBERTa: A Robustly Optimized BERT Pretraining Approach](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1907.11692/) (2019)
- [Semi-Supervised Classification with Graph Convolutional Networks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1609.02907/) (2016)
- [Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1908.10084/) (2019)
- [Graph Attention Networks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1710.10903/) (2017)
- [DistilBERT, a distilled version of BERT: smaller, faster, cheaper and lighter](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1910.01108/) (2019)
- [SpanBERT: Improving Pre-training by Representing and Predicting Spans](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1907.10529/) (2019)
- [Topological Sort for Sentence Ordering](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2005.00432/) (2020)
- [Graph-based Neural Sentence Ordering](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1912.07225/) (2019)
- [Neural Sentence Ordering](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1607.06952/) (2016)
- [End-to-End Neural Sentence Ordering Using Pointer Network](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1611.04953/) (2016)

## Abstract (arXiv)

The integration of sentences poses an intriguing challenge within the realm of NLP, but it has not garnered the attention it deserves. Existing methods that focus on sentence arrangement, textual consistency, and question answering are inadequate in addressing this issue. To bridge this gap, we introduce InsertGNN, which conceptualizes the problem as a graph and employs a hierarchical Graph Neural Network (GNN) to comprehend the interplay between sentences. Our approach was rigorously evaluated on a TOEFL dataset, and its efficacy was further validated on the expansive arXiv dataset using cross-domain learning. Thorough experimentation unequivocally establishes InsertGNN's superiority over all comparative benchmarks, achieving an impressive 70% accuracy, a performance on par with average human test scores.