# State-space aerodynamic model reveals high force control authority and predictability in flapping flight

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2103.07994 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2103.07994/

## Key facts

- Cited by 2 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- First posted on arXiv 14 Mar 2021.

## Built on by (most cited first, 2 of 2)

- [A Deep Inverse-Mapping Model for a Flapping Robotic Wing](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.09378/) (2025)
- [Data-Driven Discovery and Formulation Refines the Quasi-Steady Model of Flapping-Wing Aerodynamics](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2508.18703/) (2025)

## Abstract (arXiv)

Flying animals resort to fast, large-degree-of-freedom motion of flapping wings, a key feature that distinguishes them from rotary or fixed-winged robotic fliers with limited motion of aerodynamic surfaces. However, flapping-wing aerodynamics are characterised by highly unsteady and three-dimensional flows difficult to model or control, and accurate aerodynamic force predictions often rely on expensive computational or experimental methods. Here, we developed a computationally efficient and data-driven state-space model to dynamically map wing kinematics to aerodynamic forces/moments. This model was trained and tested with a total of 548 different flapping-wing motions and surpassed the accuracy and generality of the existing quasi-steady models. This model used 12 states to capture the unsteady and nonlinear fluid effects pertinent to force generation without explicit information of fluid flows. We also provided a comprehensive assessment of the control authority of key wing kinematic variables and found that instantaneous aerodynamic forces/moments were largely predictable by the wing motion history within a half-stroke cycle. Furthermore, the angle of attack, normal acceleration, and pitching motion had the strongest effects on the aerodynamic force/moment generation. Our results show that flapping flight inherently offers high force control authority and predictability, which can be key to developing agile and stable aerial fliers.