# VMAF-based Bitrate Ladder Estimation for Adaptive Streaming

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2103.07564 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2103.07564/

## Key facts

- Cited by 4 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 2 of its 29 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 12 Mar 2021.

## Builds on (most cited first, 2 of 2)

- [Efficient Bitrate Ladder Construction for Content-Optimized Adaptive Video Streaming](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2102.04550/) (2021)
- [Deep Video Precoding](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1908.00812/) (2019)

## Built on by (most cited first, 4 of 4)

- [Convex Hull Prediction for Adaptive Video Streaming by Recurrent Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2206.04877/) (2022)
- [Leveraging Compression to Construct Transferable Bitrate Ladders](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2512.12952/) (2025)
- [Multi-Objective Pareto-Front Optimization for Efficient Adaptive VVC Streaming](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2601.10607/) (2026)
- [Optimal Transcoding Resolution Prediction for Efficient Per-Title Bitrate Ladder Estimation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2401.04405/) (2024)

## Abstract (arXiv)

In HTTP Adaptive Streaming, video content is conventionally encoded by adapting its spatial resolution and quantization level to best match the prevailing network state and display characteristics. It is well known that the traditional solution, of using a fixed bitrate ladder, does not result in the highest quality of experience for the user. Hence, in this paper, we consider a content-driven approach for estimating the bitrate ladder, based on spatio-temporal features extracted from the uncompressed content. The method implements a content-driven interpolation. It uses the extracted features to train a machine learning model to infer the curvature points of the Rate-VMAF curves in order to guide a set of initial encodings. We employ the VMAF quality metric as a means of perceptually conditioning the estimation. When compared to exhaustive encoding that produces the reference ladder, the estimated ladder is composed by 74.3% of identical Rate-VMAF points with the reference ladder. The proposed method offers a significant reduction of the number of encodes required, 77.4%, at a small average Bjontegaard Delta Rate cost, 1.12%.