# What Do We See in Them? Identifying Dimensions of Partner Models for Speech Interfaces Using a Psycholexical Approach

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.02094 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2102.02094/

## Key facts

- Cited by 3 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- Builds on 6 of its 139 references that are in the map.
- First posted on arXiv 3 Feb 2021.

## Builds on (most cited first, 6 of 6)

- [Expressive Speech Synthesis via Modeling Expressions with Variational Autoencoder](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1804.02135/) (2018)
- [The State of Speech in HCI: Trends, Themes and Challenges](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1810.06828/) (2018)
- [Mapping Perceptions of Humanness in Speech-Based Intelligent Personal Assistant Interaction](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1907.11585/) (2019)
- [Developing a Personality Model for Speech-based Conversational Agents Using the Psycholexical Approach](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2003.06186/) (2020)
- [Is spoken language all-or-nothing? Implications for future speech-based human-machine interaction](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1607.05174/) (2016)
- [What's in an accent? The impact of accented synthetic speech on lexical choice in human-machine dialogue](https://mlsanity.com/paper/1907.11146/) (2019)

## Built on by (most cited first, 3 of 3)

- [Toward Metaphor-Fluid Conversation Design for Voice User Interfaces](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.11554/) (2025)
- [LGBTQ-AI? Exploring Expressions of Gender and Sexual Orientation in Chatbots](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2106.02076/) (2021)
- [Super Kawaii Vocalics: Amplifying the "Cute" Factor in Computer Voice](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2507.06235/) (2025)

## Abstract (arXiv)

Perceptions of system competence and communicative ability, termed partner models, play a significant role in speech interface interaction. Yet we do not know what the core dimensions of this concept are. Taking a psycholexical approach, our paper is the first to identify the key dimensions that define partner models in speech agent interaction. Through a repertory grid study (N=21), a review of key subjective questionnaires, an expert review of resulting word pairs and an online study of 356 user of speech interfaces, we identify three key dimensions that make up a users' partner model: 1) perceptions toward competence and capability; 2) assessment of human-likeness; and 3) a system's perceived cognitive flexibility. We discuss the implications for partner modelling as a concept, emphasising the importance of salience and the dynamic nature of these perceptions.