# Cross-lingual Zero- and Few-shot Hate Speech Detection Utilising Frozen Transformer Language Models and AXEL

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2004.13850 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/2004.13850/

## Key facts

- Cited by 23 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- First posted on arXiv 13 Apr 2020.

## Built on by (most cited first, 23 of 23)

- [Multilingual HateCheck: Functional Tests for Multilingual Hate Speech Detection Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2206.09917/) (2022)
- [The MuSe 2021 Multimodal Sentiment Analysis Challenge: Sentiment, Emotion, Physiological-Emotion, and Stress](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2104.07123/) (2021)
- [Multilingual Code-Switching for Zero-Shot Cross-Lingual Intent Prediction and Slot Filling](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2103.07792/) (2021)
- [Cross-Cultural Transfer Learning for Chinese Offensive Language Detection](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2303.17927/) (2023)
- [Question Generation for Reading Comprehension Assessment by Modeling How and What to Ask](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2204.02908/) (2022)
- [Moderating New Waves of Online Hate with Chain-of-Thought Reasoning in Large Language Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2312.15099/) (2023)
- [ToKen: Task Decomposition and Knowledge Infusion for Few-Shot Hate Speech Detection](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2205.12495/) (2022)
- [Benchmarking LLM Guardrails in Handling Multilingual Toxicity](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2410.22153/) (2024)
- [Multilingual Auxiliary Tasks Training: Bridging the Gap between Languages for Zero-Shot Transfer of Hate Speech Detection Models](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2210.13029/) (2022)
- [Cross-lingual COVID-19 Fake News Detection](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2110.06495/) (2021)
- [Data-Efficient Strategies for Expanding Hate Speech Detection into Under-Resourced Languages](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2210.11359/) (2022)
- [Cross-lingual hate speech detection based on multilingual domain-specific word embeddings](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2104.14728/) (2021)
- [Hypothesis Engineering for Zero-Shot Hate Speech Detection](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2210.00910/) (2022)
- [Rationale-Guided Few-Shot Classification to Detect Abusive Language](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2211.17046/) (2022)
- [Cross-Lingual Learning vs. Low-Resource Fine-Tuning: A Case Study with Fact-Checking in Turkish](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2403.00411/) (2024)
- [Harnessing Artificial Intelligence to Combat Online Hate: Exploring the Challenges and Opportunities of Large Language Models in Hate Speech Detection](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2403.08035/) (2024)
- [A Neighbourhood Framework for Resource-Lean Content Flagging](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2103.17055/) (2021)
- [Addressing the Challenges of Cross-Lingual Hate Speech Detection](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2201.05922/) (2022)
- [LAHM : Large Annotated Dataset for Multi-Domain and Multilingual Hate Speech Identification](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2304.00913/) (2023)
- [Cross-lingual Offensive Language Detection: A Systematic Review of Datasets, Transfer Approaches and Challenges](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2401.09244/) (2024)
- [Transfer Learning for Multi-lingual Tasks -- a Survey](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2110.02052/) (2021)
- [Effective Transfer Learning for Low-Resource Natural Language Understanding](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2208.09180/) (2022)
- [Vicinal Risk Minimization for Few-Shot Cross-lingual Transfer in Abusive Language Detection](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2311.02025/) (2023)

## Abstract (arXiv)

Detecting hate speech, especially in low-resource languages, is a non-trivial challenge. To tackle this, we developed a tailored architecture based on frozen, pre-trained Transformers to examine cross-lingual zero-shot and few-shot learning, in addition to uni-lingual learning, on the HatEval challenge data set. With our novel attention-based classification block AXEL, we demonstrate highly competitive results on the English and Spanish subsets. We also re-sample the English subset, enabling additional, meaningful comparisons in the future.