# Evaluation of Appearance-Based Methods and Implications for Gaze-Based Applications

arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/1901.10906 · HTML: https://mlsanity.com/paper/1901.10906/

## Key facts

- Cited by 29 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026).
- First posted on arXiv 30 Jan 2019.

## Built on by (most cited first, 29 of 29)

- [Appearance-based Gaze Estimation With Deep Learning: A Review and Benchmark](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2104.12668/) (2021)
- [Automatic Gaze Analysis: A Survey of Deep Learning based Approaches](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2108.05479/) (2021)
- [Retina : Low-Power Eye Tracking with Event Camera and Spiking Hardware](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2312.00425/) (2023)
- [End-to-end Video Gaze Estimation via Capturing Head-face-eye Spatial-temporal Interaction Context](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2310.18131/) (2023)
- [An End-to-End Review of Gaze Estimation and its Interactive Applications on Handheld Mobile Devices](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2307.00122/) (2023)
- [Eye-tracked Virtual Reality: A Comprehensive Survey on Methods and Privacy Challenges](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2305.14080/) (2023)
- [Spatio-Temporal Attention and Gaussian Processes for Personalized Video Gaze Estimation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2404.05215/) (2024)
- [EFE: End-to-end Frame-to-Gaze Estimation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2305.05526/) (2023)
- [Rotation-Constrained Cross-View Feature Fusion for Multi-View Appearance-based Gaze Estimation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2305.12704/) (2023)
- [MambaPupil: Bidirectional Selective Recurrent model for Event-based Eye tracking](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2404.12083/) (2024)
- [Towards Self-Supervised Gaze Estimation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2203.10974/) (2022)
- [Exploring Emotion Expression Recognition in Older Adults Interacting with a Virtual Coach](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2311.05567/) (2023)
- [GazeForensics: DeepFake Detection via Gaze-guided Spatial Inconsistency Learning](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2311.07075/) (2023)
- [3D Prior is All You Need: Cross-Task Few-shot 2D Gaze Estimation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.04074/) (2025)
- [Learning Video-independent Eye Contact Segmentation from In-the-Wild Videos](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2210.02033/) (2022)
- [Towards Precision in Appearance-based Gaze Estimation in the Wild](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2302.02353/) (2023)
- [Upper-Body Pose-based Gaze Estimation for Privacy-Preserving 3D Gaze Target Detection](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2409.17886/) (2024)
- [FovealNet: Advancing AI-Driven Gaze Tracking Solutions for Optimized Foveated Rendering System Performance in Virtual Reality](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2412.10456/) (2024)
- [WEBEYETRACK: Scalable Eye-Tracking for the Browser via On-Device Few-Shot Personalization](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2508.19544/) (2025)
- [MemX: An Attention-Aware Smart Eyewear System for Personalized Moment Auto-capture](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2105.00916/) (2021)
- [Contrastive Weighted Learning for Near-Infrared Gaze Estimation](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2211.03073/) (2022)
- [SecureGaze: Defending Gaze Estimation Against Backdoor Attacks](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2502.20306/) (2025)
- [Evaluating Sensitivity Parameters in Smartphone-Based Gaze Estimation: A Comparative Study of Appearance-Based and Infrared Eye Trackers](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2506.11932/) (2025)
- [A3FR: Agile 3D Gaussian Splatting with Incremental Gaze Tracked Foveated Rendering in Virtual Reality](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2507.04147/) (2025)
- [Deployment-Oriented Session-wise Meta-Calibration for Landmark-Based Webcam Gaze Tracking](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2603.12388/) (2026)
- [Polarization-Based Eye Tracking with Personalized Siamese Architectures](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2603.25889/) (2026)
- [EyeBrain: Left and Right Brain Lateralization Activity Classification Through Pupil Diameter and Fixation Duration](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2604.23562/) (2026)
- [An Affordable, Wearable Stereo-Eye-Tracking Platform](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2604.24331/) (2026)
- [Marker-free eye-gaze estimation using a single image and depth from defocus](https://mlsanity.com/paper/2609.09610/) (2026)

## Abstract (arXiv)

Appearance-based gaze estimation methods that only require an off-the-shelf camera have significantly improved but they are still not yet widely used in the human-computer interaction (HCI) community. This is partly because it remains unclear how they perform compared to model-based approaches as well as dominant, special-purpose eye tracking equipment. To address this limitation, we evaluate the performance of state-of-the-art appearance-based gaze estimation for interaction scenarios with and without personal calibration, indoors and outdoors, for different sensing distances, as well as for users with and without glasses. We discuss the obtained findings and their implications for the most important gaze-based applications, namely explicit eye input, attentive user interfaces, gaze-based user modelling, and passive eye monitoring. To democratise the use of appearance-based gaze estimation and interaction in HCI, we finally present OpenGaze (www.opengaze.org), the first software toolkit for appearance-based gaze estimation and interaction.